Chemical and morphological characterization of sugarcane bagasse submitted to a delignification process for enhanced enzymatic digestibility

Abstract Background In recent years, biorefining of lignocellulosic biomass to produce multi-products such as ethanol and other biomaterials has become a dynamic research area. Pretreatment technologies that fractionate sugarcane bagasse are essential for the successful use of this feedstock in ethanol production. In this paper, we investigate modifications in the morphology and chemical composition of sugarcane bagasse submitted to a two-step treatment, using diluted acid followed by a delignification process with increasing sodium hydroxide concentrations. Detailed chemical and morphological characterization of the samples after each pretreatment condition, studied by high performance liquid chromatography, solid-state nuclear magnetic resonance, diffuse reflectance Fourier transformed infrared spectroscopy and scanning electron microscopy, is reported, together with sample crystallinity and enzymatic digestibility. Results Chemical composition analysis performed on samples obtained after different pretreatment conditions showed that up to 96% and 85% of hemicellulose and lignin fractions, respectively, were removed by this two-step method when sodium hydroxide concentrations of 1% (m/v) or higher were used. The efficient lignin removal resulted in an enhanced hydrolysis yield reaching values around 100%. Considering the cellulose loss due to the pretreatment (maximum of 30%, depending on the process), the total cellulose conversion increases significantly from 22.0% (value for the untreated bagasse) to 72.4%. The delignification process, with consequent increase in the cellulose to lignin ratio, is also clearly observed by nuclear magnetic resonance and diffuse reflectance Fourier transformed infrared spectroscopy experiments. We also demonstrated that the morphological changes contributing to this remarkable improvement occur as a consequence of lignin removal from the sample. Bagasse unstructuring is favored by the loss of cohesion between neighboring cell walls, as well as by changes in the inner cell wall structure, such as damaging, hole formation and loss of mechanical resistance, facilitating liquid and enzyme access to crystalline cellulose. Conclusions The results presented herewith show the efficiency of the proposed method for improving the enzymatic digestibility of sugarcane bagasse and provide understanding of the pretreatment action mechanism. Combining the different techniques applied in this work warranted thorough information about the undergoing morphological and chemical changes and was an efficient approach to understand the morphological effects resulting from sample delignification and its influence on the enhanced hydrolysis results.

Effects of eccentric exercise on cycling efficiency

[EN] The aim of this study was to find out whether the efficiency of concentric muscle contraction is impaired by eccentric squatting exercise. The study involved 25 male physical education students in two experiments. In the first experiment 14 subjects undertook cycling exercise at 65% VO(2)max until exhaustion on two occasions. During the experimental condition their cycling was interrupted every 10 min so they could perform eccentric squatting exercise, whereas in the control condition they rested seated on the bike during the interruptions. Eccentric squatting consisted of 10 series of 25 reps with a load equivalent to 150% of the subject's body mass on the shoulders. During the first experiment gross efficiency decreased (mean +/- SE) from 17.1 +/- 0.3 to 16.0 +/- 0.4%, and from 17.2 +/- 0.3 to 16.5 +/- 0.4%, between the 2nd and 9th cycling bouts of the experimental and control conditions, respectively (both p < 0.05). The reduction in cycling efficiency was similar in both conditions (p = 0.10). Blood lactate concentration [La] was higher during the experimental than in the control condition (p < 0.05), but substrate oxidation was similar. MVC was decreased similarly (25-28%) in both conditions. The 11 subjects participating in the second experiment undertook 25 reps of eccentric squatting exercise only, each with a load equivalent to 95% of his maximal voluntary contraction (MVC), repeated every 3 min until exhaustion. One hour after the end of the eccentric squatting exercise series cycling, VO(2) and gross cycling efficiency were comparable to the values observed before the eccentric exercise. Both experimental protocols with eccentric exercise elicited similar muscle soreness 2 days later; however, at this time cycling efficiency was similar to that observed prior to eccentric exercise. The interposition of cycling exercise between the eccentric exercise bouts accelerated the recovery of MVC. We conclude that eccentric exercise does not alter or has only a marginal effect on gross cycling efficiency even in presence of marked muscle soreness.

Thermoelectric performance of p-type TiCoSb half-Heusler compounds - Intrinsic phase separation and charge carrier concentration optimization as key to high efficiency

The world's rising demand of energy turns the development of sustainable and more efficient technologies for energy production and storage into an inevitable task. Thermoelectric generators, composed of pairs of n-type and p-type semiconducting materials, di¬rectly transform waste heat into useful electricity. The efficiency of a thermoelectric mate¬rial depends on its electronic and lattice properties, summarized in its figure of merit ZT. Desirable are high electrical conductivity and Seebeck coefficients, and low thermal con¬ductivity. Half-Heusler materials are very promising candidates for thermoelectric applications in the medium¬ temperature range such as in industrial and automotive waste heat recovery. The advantage of Heusler compounds are excellent electronic properties and high thermal and mechanical stability, as well as their low toxicity and elemental abundance. Thus, the main obstacle to further enhance their thermoelectric performance is their relatively high thermal conductivity.rn rnIn this work, the thermoelectric properties of the p-type material (Ti/Zr/Hf)CoSb1-xSnx were optimized in a multistep process. The concept of an intrinsic phase separation has recently become a focus of research in the compatible n-type (Ti/Zr/Hf)NiSn system to achieve low thermal conductivities and boost the TE performance. This concept is successfully transferred to the TiCoSb system. The phase separation approach can form a significant alternative to the previous nanostructuring approach via ball milling and hot pressing, saving pro¬cessing time, energy consumption and increasing the thermoelectric efficiency. A fundamental concept to tune the performance of thermoelectric materials is charge carrier concentration optimization. The optimum carrier concentration is reached with a substitution level for Sn of x = 0.15, enhancing the ZT about 40% compared to previous state-of-the-art samples with x = 0.2. The TE performance can be enhanced further by a fine-tuning of the Ti-to-Hf ratio. A correlation of the microstructure and the thermoelectric properties is observed and a record figure of merit ZT = 1.2 at 710°C was reached with the composition Ti0.25Hf0.75CoSb0.85Sn0.15.rnTowards application, the long term stability of the material under actual conditions of operation are an important issue. The impact of such a heat treatment on the structural and thermoelectric properties is investigated. Particularly, the best and most reliable performance is achieved in Ti0.5Hf0.5CoSb0.85Sn0.15, which reached a maximum ZT of 1.1 at 700°C. The intrinsic phase separation and resulting microstructure is stable even after 500 heating and cooling cycles.

Unraveling efficiency-limiting processes in organic solar cells by ultrafast spectroscopy - impact of chemical structure and morphology on photophysics and efficiency

Diese Arbeit widmet sich der Untersuchung der photophysikalischen Prozesse, die in Mischungen von Elektronendonoren mit Elektronenakzeptoren zur Anwendung in organischen Solarzellen auftreten. Als Elektronendonoren werden das Copolymer PBDTTT-C, das aus Benzodithiophen- und Thienothiophene-Einheiten besteht, und das kleine Molekül p-DTS(FBTTh2)2, welches Silizium-überbrücktes Dithiophen, sowie fluoriertes Benzothiadiazol und Dithiophen beinhaltet, verwendet. Als Elektronenakzeptor finden ein planares 3,4:9,10-Perylentetracarbonsäurediimid-(PDI)-Derivat und verschiedene Fullerenderivate Anwendung. PDI-Derivate gelten als vielversprechende Alternativen zu Fullerenen aufgrund der durch chemische Synthese abstimmbaren strukturellen, optischen und elektronischen Eigenschaften. Das gewichtigste Argument für PDI-Derivate ist deren Absorption im sichtbaren Bereich des Sonnenspektrums was den Photostrom verbessern kann. Fulleren-basierte Mischungen übertreffen jedoch für gewöhnlich die Effizienz von Donor-PDI-Mischungen.rnUm den Nachteil der PDI-basierten Mischungen im Vergleich zu den entsprechenden Fulleren-basierten Mischungen zu identifizieren, werden die verschiedenen Donor-Akzeptor-Kombinationen auf ihre optischen, elektronischen und strukturellen Eigenschaften untersucht. Zeitaufgelöste Spektroskopie, vor allem transiente Absorptionsspektroskopie (TA), wird zur Analyse der Ladungsgeneration angewendet und der Vergleich der Donor-PDI Mischfilme mit den Donor-Fulleren Mischfilmen zeigt, dass die Bildung von Ladungstransferzuständen einen der Hauptverlustkanäle darstellt.rnWeiterhin werden Mischungen aus PBDTTT-C und [6,6]-Phenyl-C61-buttersäuremethylesther (PC61BM) mittels TA-Spektroskopie auf einer Zeitskala von ps bis µs untersucht und es kann gezeigt werden, dass der Triplettzustand des Polymers über die nicht-geminale Rekombination freier Ladungen auf einer sub-ns Zeitskala bevölkert wird. Hochentwickelte Methoden zur Datenanalyse, wie multivariate curve resolution (MCR), werden angewendet um überlagernde Datensignale zu trennen. Zusätzlich kann die Regeneration von Ladungsträgern durch Triplett-Triplett-Annihilation auf einer ns-µs Zeitskala gezeigt werden. Darüber hinaus wird der Einfluss des Lösungsmitteladditivs 1,8-Diiodooctan (DIO) auf die Leistungsfähigkeit von p-DTS(FBTTh2)2:PDI Solarzellen untersucht. Die Erkenntnisse von morphologischen und photophysikalischen Experimenten werden kombiniert, um die strukturellen Eigenschaften und die Photophysik mit den relevanten Kenngrößen des Bauteils in Verbindung zu setzen. Zeitaufgelöste Photolumineszenzmessungen (time-resolved photoluminescence, TRPL) zeigen, dass der Einsatz von DIO zu einer geringeren Reduzierung der Photolumineszenz führt, was auf eine größere Phasentrennung zurückgeführt werden kann. Außerdem kann mittels TA Spektroskopie gezeigt werden, dass die Verwendung von DIO zu einer verbesserten Kristallinität der aktiven Schicht führt und die Generation freier Ladungen fördert. Zur genauen Analyse des Signalzerfalls wird ein Modell angewendet, das den gleichzeitigen Zerfall gebundener CT-Zustände und freier Ladungen berücksichtigt und optimierte Donor-Akzeptor-Mischungen zeigen einen größeren Anteil an nicht-geminaler Rekombination freier Ladungsträger.rnIn einer weiteren Fallstudie wird der Einfluss des Fullerenderivats, namentlich IC60BA und PC71BM, auf die Leistungsfähigkeit und Photophysik der Solarzellen untersucht. Eine Kombination aus einer Untersuchung der Struktur des Dünnfilms sowie zeitaufgelöster Spektroskopie ergibt, dass Mischungen, die ICBA als Elektronenakzeptor verwenden, eine schlechtere Trennung von Ladungstransferzuständen zeigen und unter einer stärkeren geminalen Rekombination im Vergleich zu PCBM-basierten Mischungen leiden. Dies kann auf die kleinere Triebkraft zur Ladungstrennung sowie auf die höhere Unordnung der ICBA-basierten Mischungen, die die Ladungstrennung hemmen, zurückgeführt werden. Außerdem wird der Einfluss reiner Fullerendomänen auf die Funktionsfähigkeit organischer Solarzellen, die aus Mischungen des Thienothienophen-basierenden Polymers pBTTT-C14 und PC61BM bestehen, untersucht. Aus diesem Grund wird die Photophysik von Filmen mit einem Donor-Akzeptor-Mischungsverhältnis von 1:1 sowie 1:4 verglichen. Während 1:1-Mischungen lediglich eine co-kristalline Phase, in der Fullerene zwischen den Seitenketten von pBTTT interkalieren, zeigen, resultiert der Überschuss an Fulleren in den 1:4-Proben in der Ausbildung reiner Fullerendomänen zusätzlich zu der co kristallinen Phase. Transiente Absorptionsspektroskopie verdeutlicht, dass Ladungstransferzustände in 1:1-Mischungen hauptsächlich über geminale Rekombination zerfallen, während in 1:4 Mischungen ein beträchtlicher Anteil an Ladungen ihre wechselseitige Coulombanziehung überwinden und freie Ladungsträger bilden kann, die schließlich nicht-geminal rekombinieren.

Synthesis, characterization and crystallization of bionanocomposites based on PLLA, PCL and nanocellulose

In recent years, environmental concerns and the expected shortage in the fossil reserves have increased further development of biomaterials. Among them, poly(lactide) PLA possess some potential properties such as good ability process, excellent tensile strength and stiffness equivalent to some commercial petroleum-based polymers (PP, PS, PET, etc.). This biobased polymer is also biodegradable and biocompatible However, one great disadvantage of commercial PLA is slow crystallization rate, which restricts its use in many fields. Using of nanofillers is viewed as an efficient strategy to overcome this problem. In this thesis, the effect of bionanofillers in neat PLA and in blends of poly (L-lactide)(PLA)/poly(ε-Caprolactone) (PCL) has been investigated. The used nanofillers are: poly(L-lactide-co-ε-caprolactone) and poly(L-lactide-b-ε-caprolactone) grafted on cellulose nanowhiskers and neat cellulose nanowhiskers (CNW). The grafting reaction of poly(L-lactide-co-caprolactone) and poly (L-lactide-b-caprolactone) on the nanocellulose has been performed by the grafting from technique. In this way the polymerization reaction it is directly initiated on the substrate surface. The condition of the reaction were chosen after a temperature and solvent screening. By non-isothermal an isothermal DSC analysis the effect of bionanofillers on PLA and 80/20 PLA/PCL was evaluated. Non-isothermal DSC scans show a nucleating effect of the bionanofillers on PLA. This effect is detectable during PLA crystallization from the glassy state. Cold crystallization temperature is reduced upon the addition of the poly(L-lactide-b-caprolactone) grafted on cellulose nanowhiskers that is most performing bionanofiller in acting as a nucleating agent. On the other hand, DSC isothermal analysis on the overall crystallization rate indicate that cellulose nanowhiskers are best nucleating agents during isothermal crystallization from the melt state. In conclusion, nanofillers have different behavior depending on the processing conditions. However, the efficiency of our nanofillers as nucleating agent was clearly demonstrated in both isothermal as in non-isothermal condition.

Origin of the high upconversion green luminescence efficiency in -NaYF4:2% Er3+,20% Yb3+

Site-selective spectroscopy in hexagonal beta-NaYF4:Er3+,Yb3+ has revealed different environments for Er3+ ions (multisite formation). The low-temperature S-4(3/2) -> (I15/2Er3+)-I-4 green emission depends on the excitation wavelength associated with the F-4(7/2) Er3+ level. We have studied the effect of hydrostatic pressure on the green, red, and blue Er3+ emission upon NIR excitation at similar to 980 nm, in order to establish the role played by energy resonance conditions and the multiple Er3+ sites due to the disordered structure for the upconversion (UC) process (energy tuning). The variation of photoluminescence spectra and lifetimes as a function of pressure and temperature reveals that the origin of the high green UC efficiency of the beta-NaYF4:Er3+,Yb3+ compound is mainly due to the multisite distribution, and the low phonon energy of the host lattice.

Integrated care in patients with schizophrenia: results of trials published between 2011 and 2013 focusing on effectiveness and efficiency

Purpose of review: Overview on integrated care trials focusing on effectiveness and efficiency published from 2011 to 2013. Recent findings: Eight randomized controlled trials (RCTs) and 21 non-RCT studies were published from 2011 to 2013. Studies differed in several methodological aspects such as study population, psychotherapeutic approaches used, outcome parameters, follow-up times, fidelities, and implementation of the integrated care model and the nation-specific healthcare context with different control conditions. This makes it difficult to draw firm conclusions. Most studies demonstrated relevant improvements regarding symptoms (P = 0.001) and functioning (P = 0.01), quality of life (P = 0.01), adherence (P <0.05) and patient's satisfaction (P = 0.01), and reduction of caregiver's stress (P < 0.05). Mean total costs were favoring or at least equalizing costs but with positive effects found on subjective health favoring integrated care models. Summary: There is an increasing interest in the effectiveness and efficiency of integrated care models in patients with mental disorders, specifically in those with severe and persistent mental illness. To increase generalizability, future trials should exactly describe rationales and content of integrated care model and control conditions.

Theoretical estimation of optical absorption and photoluminescence in nanostructured silicon; an approach to improve efficiency in nanostructured solar cells

Renewable energy is growing in demand, and thus the the manufacture of solar cells and photovoltaic arrays has advanced dramatically in recent years. This is proved by the fact that the photovoltaic production has doubled every 2 years, increasing by an average of 48% each year since 2002. Covering the general overview of solar cell working, and its model, this thesis will start with the three generations of photovoltaic solar cell technology, and move to the motivation of dedicating research to nanostructured solar cell. For the current generation solar cells, among several factors, like photon capture, photon reflection, carrier generation by photons, carrier transport and collection, the efficiency also depends on the absorption of photons. The absorption coefficient,α, and its dependence on the wavelength, λ, is of major concern to improve the efficiency. Nano-silicon structures (quantum wells and quantum dots) have a unique advantage compared to bulk and thin film crystalline silicon that multiple direct and indirect band gaps can be realized by appropriate size control of the quantum wells. This enables multiple wavelength photons of the solar spectrum to be absorbed efficiently. There is limited research on the calculation of absorption coefficient in nano structures of silicon. We present a theoretical approach to calculate the absorption coefficient using quantum mechanical calculations on the interaction of photons with the electrons of the valence band. One model is that the oscillator strength of the direct optical transitions is enhanced by the quantumconfinement effect in Si nanocrystallites. These kinds of quantum wells can be realized in practice in porous silicon. The absorption coefficient shows a peak of 64638.2 cm-1 at = 343 nm at photon energy of ξ = 3.49 eV ( = 355.532 nm). I have shown that a large value of absorption coefficient α comparable to that of bulk silicon is possible in silicon QDs because of carrier confinement. Our results have shown that we can enhance the absorption coefficient by an order of 10, and at the same time a nearly constant absorption coefficient curve over the visible spectrum. The validity of plots is verified by the correlation with experimental photoluminescence plots. A very generic comparison for the efficiency of p-i-n junction solar cell is given for a cell incorporating QDs and sans QDs. The design and fabrication technique is discussed in brief. I have shown that by using QDs in the intrinsic region of a cell, we can improve the efficiency by a factor of 1.865 times. Thus for a solar cell of efficiency of 26% for first generation solar cell, we can improve the efficiency to nearly 48.5% on using QDs.

The Effect of the Cu:Fe''' Ratio Upon the Current Efficiency in the Electrolysis of a Copper Sulfate Solution Containing Iron Sulfate

It is a well-known fact that, in the electrolysis of a CuSO4 solution containing iron sulfate, using insoluble anodes, with the depletion of copper, the point is finally reached where the current efficiency becomes zero. This decrease in current efficiency is due to the oxidation of the ferrous sulfate to the ferric condition at the anode, by the oxygen liberated. The resulting ferric sulfate diffuses over to the cathode and there dissolves copper from the cathode according to the chemical equation Cu + Fe2 (SO4)3 = CuSO4 + 2FeSO4. This copper, which has been deposited at the cathode by the electric current, is thus redissolved by the Fe2(SO4)3. The solution of the copper causes at the same time a formation of FeSO4 which in turn diffuses over to the anode and is there oxidized to Fe2(SO4)3; and so the cycle continues, using electric current without rendering useful work. E. H. Larison has noted that a definite amount of ferric salts must be reduced to the ferrous condition before all the copper will remain on the cathode; he does not state, however, just what this point is. L. Addicks has plotted the relation between current efficiency and ferric sulphate content. The existence of the results scattered the points more or less, although the decrease in current efficiency with increased ferric sulphate content is clearly indicated. E. T.Kern has likewise noted that the smaller the amount of copper in the solution, the greater is the reduction of current efficiency. In this work, therefore, it was desired to determine what amount of ferric iron was permissible in a copper sulfate solution of definite concentration before the current efficiency would drop to zero, and what, if any, was the effect of definite Cu:Fe’’’ratio upon the current efficiency of the electrolysis.

Effects of Ownership on Hospital Efficiency in Germany

The objective of our study was to evaluate the efficiency of public, private for-profit, and private non-profit hospitals in Germany. First, bootstrapped data envelopment analysis (DEA) was used to evaluate the efficiency of a panel (n = 1,046) of public, private for-profit, and private non-profit hospitals between 2002 and 2006. This was followed by a second-step truncated linear regression model with bootstrapped DEA efficiency scores as dependent variable. The results show that public hospitals performed significantly better than their private for-profit and non-profit counterparts. In addition, we found a significant positive association between hospital size and efficiency, and that competitive pressure had a significant negative impact on hospital efficiency.

Contribution to the Energy Efficiency and Environmental Compatibility of Cranes for Inland Waterway/ Feeder Ship Handling

Basis for the economic efficiency of international supply chains rests on the efficiency of multimodal transport chains. Materials and products are transported along the edges of transport networks with the forwarder endeavouring to maximize the transport efficiency by using the effects of scale along the edges. The network nodes provide the means to have the goods transferred between the means of transport. Whilst purely economic criteria were initially the driving force for a change in the means of transport, ecological requirements are now becoming ever more relevant. The transportation chains should not only be economically presentable but also it makes sense for them to have a “green footprint”. In this context the following considerations will deal with the transfer processes within the network nodes, especially those within inland and feeder terminals. Replies are to be given to the questions as to how far the choice of the crane primary drive has an impact on energy consumption and environmental compatibility of handling the goods and which additional benefit does the recuperation of engrained energies bring during the handling process.

Economic efficiency analysis of different strategies to control post-weaning multi-systemic wasting syndrome and porcine circovirus type 2 subclinical infection in 3-weekly batch system farms.

The study assessed the economic efficiency of different strategies for the control of post-weaning multi-systemic wasting syndrome (PMWS) and porcine circovirus type 2 subclinical infection (PCV2SI), which have a major economic impact on the pig farming industry worldwide. The control strategies investigated consisted on the combination of up to 5 different control measures. The control measures considered were: (1) PCV2 vaccination of piglets (vac); (2) ensuring age adjusted diet for growers (diets); (3) reduction of stocking density (stock); (4) improvement of biosecurity measures (bios); and (5) total depopulation and repopulation of the farm for the elimination of other major pathogens (DPRP). A model was developed to simulate 5 years production of a pig farm with a 3-weekly batch system and with 100 sows. A PMWS/PCV2SI disease and economic model, based on PMWS severity scores, was linked to the production model in order to assess disease losses. This PMWS severity scores depends on the combination post-weaning mortality, PMWS morbidity in younger pigs and proportion of PCV2 infected pigs observed on farms. The economic analysis investigated eleven different farm scenarios, depending on the number of risk factors present before the intervention. For each strategy, an investment appraisal assessed the extra costs and benefits of reducing a given PMWS severity score to the average score of a slightly affected farm. The net present value obtained for each strategy was then multiplied by the corresponding probability of success to obtain an expected value. A stochastic simulation was performed to account for uncertainty and variability. For moderately affected farms PCV2 vaccination alone was the most cost-efficient strategy, but for highly affected farms it was either PCV2 vaccination alone or in combination with biosecurity measures, with the marginal profitability between 'vac' and 'vac+bios' being small. Other strategies such as 'diets', 'vac+diets' and 'bios+diets' were frequently identified as the second or third best strategy. The mean expected values of the best strategy for a moderately and a highly affected farm were £14,739 and £57,648 after 5 years, respectively. This is the first study to compare economic efficiency of control strategies for PMWS and PCV2SI. The results demonstrate the economic value of PCV2 vaccination, and highlight that on highly affected farms biosecurity measures are required to achieve optimal profitability. The model developed has potential as a farm-level decision support tool for the control of this economically important syndrome.

Efficiency in Managing the Environment and the Opportunity Cost of Pollution Abatement

Using the directional distance function we study a cross section of 110 countries to examine the efficiency of management of the tradeoffs between pollution and income. The DEA model is reformulated to permit 'reverse disposability' of the bad output. Further, we interpret the optimal solution of the multiplier form of the DEA model as an iso-inefficiency line. This permits us to measure the shadow cost of the bad output for a country that is in the interior, rather than on the frontier of the production possibilities set. We also compare the relative environmental performance of countries in terms of emission intensity adjusted for technical efficiency. Only 10% of the countries are found to be on the frontier. Also, there is considerable inter-country variation in the imputed opportunity cost of CO2 reduction. Further, differences in technical efficiency contribute substantially to differences in the observed levels of CO2 intensity.

Are Indian Firms too Small? A Nonparametric Analysis of Cost Efficiency and Industry Structure of Indian Manufacturing

In this paper we use the 2004-05 Annual Survey of Industries data to estimate the levels of cost efficiency of Indian manufacturing firms in the various states and also get state level measures of industrial organization (IO) efficiency. The empirical results show the presence of considerable cost inefficiency in a majority of the states. Further, we also find that, on average, Indian firms are too small. Consolidating them to attain the optimal scale would further enhance efficiency and lower average cost.

Are Some Indian Bank Too Large? A Examination of Size Efficiency in Indian Banking

In this paper we use data from the years 1997 through 2003 to evaluate the size efficiency of Indian banks. Following Maindiratta (1990) we consider a bank to be too large if breaking it up into a number of smaller units would result in a larger output bundle than what could be produced from the same input by a single bank. When this is the case, the bank is not size efficient. Our analysis shows that many of the banks are, in deed, too large in various years. We also find that often a bank is operating in the region of diminishing returns to scale but is not a candidate for break up.