Evolution of Drug Resistance: Insight on TEM -Lactamases Structure and Activity and Beta-Lactam Antibiotics

Extended-spectrum β-lactamases (ESBLs) prevalence was studied in the north of Portugal, among 193 clinical isolates belonging to citizens in a district in the boundaries between this country and Spain from a total of 7529 clinical strains. In the present study we recovered some members of Enterobacteriaceae family, producing ESBL enzymes, including Escherichia coli (67.9%), Klebsiella pneumoniae (30.6%), Klebsiella oxytoca (0.5%), Enterobacter aerogenes (0.5%), and Citrobacter freundii (0.5%). β-lactamases genes blaTEM, blaSHV, and blaCTX-M were screened by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and sequencing approaches. TEM enzymes were among the most prevalent types (40.9%) followed by CTX-M (37.3%) and SHV (23.3%). Among our sample of 193 ESBL-producing strains 99.0% were resistant to the fourth-generation cephalosporin cefepime. Of the 193 isolates 81.3% presented transferable plasmids harboring genes. Clonal studies were performed by PCR for the enterobacterial repetitive intragenic consensus (ERIC) sequences. This study reports a high diversity of genetic patterns. Ten clusters were found for E. coli isolates and five clusters for K. pneumoniae strains by means of ERIC analysis. In conclusion, in this country, the most prevalent type is still the TEM-type, but CTX-M is growing rapidly.

Development of paper-based color test-strip for drug detection in aquatic environment: Application to oxytetracycline

The wide use of antibiotics in aquaculture has led to the emergence of resistant microbial species. It should be avoided/minimized by controlling the amount of drug employed in fish farming. For this purpose, the present work proposes test-strip papers aiming at the detection/semi-quantitative determination of organic drugs by visual comparison of color changes, in a similar analytical procedure to that of pH monitoring by universal pH paper. This is done by establishing suitable chemical changes upon cellulose, attributing the paper the ability to react with the organic drug and to produce a color change. Quantitative data is also enabled by taking a picture and applying a suitable mathematical treatment to the color coordinates given by the HSL system used by windows. As proof of concept, this approach was applied to oxytetracycline (OXY), one of the antibiotics frequently used in aquaculture. A bottom-up modification of paper was established, starting by the reaction of the glucose moieties on the paper with 3-triethoxysilylpropylamine (APTES). The so-formed amine layer allowed binding to a metal ion by coordination chemistry, while the metal ion reacted after with the drug to produce a colored compound. The most suitable metals to carry out such modification were selected by bulk studies, and the several stages of the paper modification were optimized to produce an intense color change against the concentration of the drug. The paper strips were applied to the analysis of spiked environmental water, allowing a quantitative determination for OXY concentrations as low as 30 ng/mL. In general, this work provided a simple, method to screen and discriminate tetracycline drugs, in aquaculture, being a promising tool for local, quick and cheap monitoring of drugs.

Desenvolvimento de um Protótipo de Dispensador Automático de Medicamentos

O número de pessoas com idade superior a 65 anos aumentou consideravelmente nos últimos 40 anos. Este incremento de longevidade tem levado ao aparecimento de varias patologias relacionadas com a idade e ao aumento da prevalência das patologias cronicas. Uma grande maioria desta população e poli-medicada e assim sendo a gestão de medicamentos e uma área que pode proporcionar grandes benefícios aos idosos. A grande quantidade de medicamentos assim como as diferentes dosagens e os diferentes horários de toma fazem com que os idosos se confundam no cumprimento do esquema terapêutico aconselhado pelo medico, nomeadamente devido ao declínio cognitivo a que estão sujeitos devido ao envelhecimento humano. Torna-se, portanto, fundamental o desenvolvimento de sistemas inteligentes que auxiliem os idosos na gestão da sua medicação. A presente dissertação de mestrado foi materializada num dispositivo, designado ElderlySafety, que visa responder aos problemas da poli-medicação, através de uma solução tecnológica que incorpora as vertentes de controlo e comunicação. O objectivo do ElderlySafety e relembrar, de forma automática, o idoso da toma atempada dos seus medicamentos e consiste num prototipo de um dispositivo com varias compartições para organização dos vários medicamentos. Este aparelho apresenta 24 compartimentos, um deles referente a uma posição estática, considerada a posição `home' e os restantes dizem respeito a 23 tomas de medicação durante uma semana. Os compartimentos em questão devem ser preenchidos com a devida medicação, pelo cuidador do idoso, no inicio de cada semana. O aparelho esta conectado via Bluetooth a uma aplicação denominada ElderlySafety Online que permite monitorizar todo o sistema. E aqui que e feito o registo, com data, hora e nome do medicamento, de toda a medicação prescrita ao paciente. Também e possível a verificação de possíveis interações medicamentosas, bem como o acesso a informações acerca do que fazer em caso de esquecimento de uma ou mais tomas. Aquando a chegada da data e hora da toma de cada medicação, o aparelho desenvolvido emite um lembrete ao idoso e esse lembrete e feito através de um alerta luminoso. Se o sistema ElderlySafety verificar que o idoso se esquece da toma dos medicamentos tem a capacidade de interagir via e-mail com o cuidador, que poder a ser um familiar próximo, alertando-o para o esquecimento da toma de medicação do paciente a seu cuidado. Os testes de validação realizados ao ElderlySafety revelaram que o prototipo se mostra funcional e apto para integrar um ambiente de vida assistido de qualquer idoso.

Therapeutics bioconjugates: evaluation of iminoboronates as payload delivery system for cancer

The advent of bioconjugation impacted deeply the world of sciences and technology. New biomolecules were found, biological processes were understood, and novel methodologies were formed due to the fast expansion of this area. The possibility of creating new effective therapies for diseases like cancer is one of big applications of this now big area of study. Off target toxicity was always the problem of potent small molecules with high activity towards specific tumour targets. However, chemotherapy is now selective due to powerful linkers that connect targeting molecules with affinity to interesting biological receptors and cytotoxic drugs. This linkers must have very specific properties, such as high stability in plasma, no toxicity, no interference with ligand affinity nor drug potency, and at the same time, be able to lyse once inside the target molecule to release the therapeutic warhead. Bipolar environments between tumour intracellular and extracellular medias are usually exploited by this linkers in order to complete this goal. The work done in this thesis explores a new model for that same task, specific cancer drug delivery. Iminoboronates were studied due to its remarkable selective stability towards a wide pH range and endogenous molecules. A fluorescence probe was design to validate this model by creating an Off/On system and determine the payload release location in situ. A process was optimized to synthetize the probe 8-(1-aminoethyl)-7-hydroxy-coumarin (1) through a reductive amination reaction in a microwave reactor with 61 % yield. A method to conjugate this probe to ABBA was also optimized, obtaining the iminoboronate in good yields in mild conditions. The iminoboronate model was studied regarding its stability in several simulated biological environments and each half-life time was determined, showing the conjugate is stable most of the cases except in tumour intracellular systems. The construction of folate-ABBA-coumarin bioconjugate have been made to complete this evaluation. The ability to be uptaken by a cancer cell through endocytosis process and the conjugation delivery of coumarin fluorescence payload are two features to hope for in this construct.

Clinical decisions in breast cancer, a heterogenous disease

RESUMO: Introdução: Tratamento do carcinoma da mama Este trabalho inicia-se com a história do tratamento do carcinoma da mama, desde os primeiros documentos que descrevem doentes com carcinoma da mama até 1950. Desde 1950 até 2000 o diagnóstico, risco e as modalidades terapêuticas usadas no tratamento das doentes são mais detalhadas com ênfase nas terapêuticas locais, regionais e sistémicas. Parte 1:Quem tratar com terapêutica sistémica adjuvante Capítulo 1: A classificação TNM não está morta no carcinoma da mama Tem sido dito que a classificação TNM não é adequada para usar como ferramenta de prognóstico e decisão terapêutica no carcinoma da mama, especialmente em doentes com carcinoma detectado através de rastreio, que tem geralmente menores dimensões. A razão desta classificação não ser adequada prendese com o facto de não estarem incluidos parâmetros biológicos na classificação TNM atual. Pusemos a hipótese de que numa população com alta percentagem de carcinoma da mama não detectado em exames de rastreio, com uma mediana de idade baixa e com alta percentagem de estadios II e III, o estadiamento clássico, pela classificação TNM, é mais descriminatório que as características biológicas na determinação do prognóstico. Para isto analisámos uma população de doentes com carcinoma da mama tratados consecutivamente na mesma instituição, durante 10 anos. Caracterizámos os fatores de prognóstico do estadiamento clássico incluídos na classificação TNM e as variantes biológicas, presentemente não incluídas na classificação TNM. Quantificámos a capacidade de cada um dos factores de prognóstico para para prever a sobrevivência. A população é de 1699 doentes com carcinoma da mama que foram tratádos com terapêutica sistémica adjuvante. Individualmente, cada um dos fatores de prognostico, clássicos ou biológicos, diferem significativamente entre doentes que sobrevivem e que não sobrevivem. Explicitamente, como previsto, doentes com tumores maiores, envolvimento dos gânglios axilares, estadios TNM mais avançados, que não expressam recetor de esrogéneo, com amplificação do gene Her2, triplos negativos ou de menor diferenciação têm menor sobrevida. Na análise multivariada, só os fatores de prognostico da classificação TNM, o grau histológico e a amplificação do gene Her2, esta última com menos significância estatistica são preditores independentes de sobrevivência. Capítulo 2: Em busca de novos factores de prognostico: Poder preditivo e mecanismo das alterações de centrossomas em carcinoma da mama Compilámos inúmeros grupos de experiências de genómica feitas em tumores primários de doentes com carcinoma da mama para as quais existe informação prognóstica. Estas experiências são feitas com o objectivo de descobrir novos factores de prognóstico. Reanalisámos os dados, repetindo a mesma pergunta: Quais são os genes com expressão diferencial estatisticamente significativa entre doentes que recaíram e doentes que não recaíram. Identificámos 65 genes nestas condições e o MKI67, o gene que codifica a proteina Ki67, estava nesse grupo. Identificámos vários genes que se sabe estarem envolvidos no processo de agregação de centrossomas. O gene que considerámos mais promissor foi a kinesina KiFC1, que já tinha sido identificada como regulador da agregação de centrossomas. Anomalias cetrossomais numéricas e estruturais têm sido observadas em neoplasias. Há dados correlacionando anolmalias centrossomais estruturais e e numéricas com o grau de malignidade e os eventos precoces da carcinogénese. Mas estas anomalias centrossomais têm um peso para a célula que deve adapatar-se ou entrará em apoptose. Os nossos resultados sugerem que existe um mecanismo adaptativo, a agregação de centrossomas, com impacto prognóstico negativo. O nosso objetivo foi quantificar o valor prognóstico das anomalias centrossomais no carcinoma da mama. Para isto usámos material de doentes dos quais sabemos a história natural. Avaliámos os genes de agregação de centrossomas, KIFC1 e TACC3, nas amostras tumorais arquivadas em parafina: primeiro com PCR (polymerase chain reaction) quantitativa e depois com imunohistoquímica (IHQ). Apenas a proteína KIFC1 foi discriminatória em IHQ, não se tendo conseguido otimizar o anticorpo da TACC3. Os níveis proteicos de KIFC1 correlacionam-se com mau prognóstico. Nas doentes que recaíram observámos, no tumor primário, maior abundância desta proteína com localização nuclear. Em seguida, demonstrámos que a agregação de centrossomas é um fenómeno que ocorre in vivo. Identificámos centrossomas agregados em amostras de tumores primários de doentes que recaíram. Tecnicamente usámos microscopia de fluorescência e IHQ contra proteínas centrossomais que avaliámos nos tumores primários arquivados em blocos de parafina. Observámos agregação de centrossomas num pequeno número de doentes que recaíram, não validámos, ainda, este fenótipo celular em larga escala. Parte 2: Como tratar com terapêutica sistémica os vários subtipos de carcinoma da mama Capítulo 3: Quantas doenças estão englobadas na definição carcinoma da mama triplo negativo? (revisão) O carcinoma da mama triplo negativo é um tumor que não expressa três proteínas: recetor de estrogénio, recetor de progesterona e o recetor do fator de crescimento epidermico tipo 2 (Her2). As doentes com estes tumores não são ainda tratadas com terapêutica dirigida, possivelmente porque esta definição negativa não tem ajudado. Sabemos apenas as alterações genéticas que estes tumores não têm, não as que eles têm. Talvez por esta razão, estes tumores são o subtipo mais agressivo de carcinoma da mama. No entanto, na prática clínica observamos que estas doentes não têm sempre mau prognóstico, além de que dados de histopatologia e epidemiologia sugerem que esta definição negativa não está a capturar um único subtipo de carcinoma da mama, mas vários. Avaliámos criticamente esta evidência, clínica, histopatológica, epidemiológica e molecular. Há evidência de heterogeneidade, mas não é claro quantos subtipos estão englobados nesta definição de carcinoma da mama triplo negativo. A resposta a esta pergunta, e a identificação do fundamento molecular desta heterogeneidade vai ajudar a melhor definir o prognóstico e eventualmente a definir novos alvos terapêuticos nesta população difícil. Capítulo 4: Terapêuica sistémica em carcinoma da mama triplo negativo (revisão) A quimioterapia é a única terapêutica sistémica disponível para as doentes com carcinoma da mama triplo negativo, ao contrário dos outros dois subtipo de carcinoma da mama que têm com a terapêutica antiestrogénica e anti Her2, importantes benefícios. Apesar de terem surgido várias opções terapêuticas para estes doentes nennhuma terapêutica dirigida foi validada pelos ensaios clínicos conduzidos, possivelmente porque a biologia deste carcinoma ainda não foi elucidada. Muitos ensaios demonstram que os tumores triplos negativos beneficiam com quimioterapia e que as mais altas taxas de resposta patológica completa à terapêutica neoadjuvante são observadas precisamente nestes tumors. A resposta patológica completa correlaciona-se com a sobrevivência. Estamos a estudar regimes adjuvantes específicos para doentes com estes tumors, mas, neste momento, regimes de terceira geração com taxanos e antraciclinas são os mais promissores. O papel de subgrupos de fármacos específicos, como os sais de platina, mantémse mal definido. Quanto às antraciclinas e taxanos, estes grupos não mostraram beneficio específico em carcinoma da mama triplo negativo quando comparado com os outros subtipos. Os próprios carcinomas da mama triplos negativos são heterogéneos e carcinomas da mama basais triplos negativos com elevada taxa de proliferação e carcinomas da mama triplos negativos surgidos em doentes com mutação germinal BRCA1 poderão ser mais sensíveis a sais de platino e menos sensíveis a taxanos. Como a definição molecular ainda não foi explicada a busca de terapêutica dirigida vai continuar. Capítulo 5: Ensaio randomizado de fase II do anticorpo monoclonal contra o recetor do fator de crescimento epidérmico tipo 1 combinado com cisplatino versus cisplatino em monoterapia em doentes com carcinoma da mama triplo negativo metastizado O recetor do fator de crescimento epidérmico tipo 1 está sobre expresso nos tumores das doentes com carcinoma da mama triplo negativo metastizado, um subtipo agressivo de carcinoma da mama. Este ensaio investigou a combinação de cetuximab e cisplatino versus cisplatino isolado em doentes deste tipo. Doentes em primeira ou segunda linha de terapêutica para doença metastizada foram randomizadas, num sistema de 2 para 1, para receber até 6 ciclos da combinação de cisplatino e cetuximab ou cisplatino isolado. Às doentes randomizadas para o braço de monoterapia podiamos, após progressão, acrescentar cetuximab ou tratá-las com cetuximab isolado. O objetivo primário foi a taxa de resposta global. Os objetivos secundários foram a sobrevivência livre de doença, a sobrevivência global e o perfil de segurança dos fármacos. A população em análise foram 115 doentes tratadas com a combinação e 58 doentes tratadas com cisplatino em monoterapia, 31 destas em quem se documentou progressão passaram a ser tratadas com um regime que incluía cetuximab, isolado ou em combinação. A taxa de resposta global foi de 20% no braço da combinaçao e de 10% no braço da monoterapia (odds ratio, 2.13). A sobrevivência livre de doença foi de 3.7 meses no braço da combinação e de 1.5 meses no braço em monoterapia (hazard ratio, 0.67). A sobrevivência global foi de 12.9 meses no braço da combinação versus 9.4 meses no braço de cisplatino. Conclui-se que, apesar de não ter sido alcançado o objectivo primário, acrescentar cetuximab, duplica a resposta e prolonga tanto a sobrevivência livre de doença como a sobrevivência global. Capítulo 6: Bloquear a angiogénese para tratar o carcinoma da mama (revisão) A angiogénese é uma característica que define a neoplasia, porque tumores com mais de 1mm precisam de formar novos vasos para poderem crescer. Desde que se descobriram as moléculas que orquestram esta transformação, que se têm procurado desenvolver e testar fármacos que interfiram com este processo. No carcinoma da mama o bevacizumab foi o primeiro fármaco aprovado pela FDA em primeira linha para tratar doença metastática. Depois foram estudados um grupo de inibidores de tirosina cinase associados aos recetores transmembranares envolvidos na angiogénese como o VEGFR, PDGFR, KIT, RET, BRAF e Flt3: sunitinib, sorafenib, pazopanib e axitinib Neste capítulo, analisaram-se e resumiram-se os dados dos ensaios clínicos das drogas anti-angiogénicas no tratamaneto do carcinoma da mama. Os ensaios de fase III do bevacizumab em carcinoma da mama mostraram uma redução na progressão de doença de 22 a 52% e aumento da sobrevivência livre de doença de 1.2 a 5.5 meses mas nunca foi demonstrado prolongamento de sobrevivência. Os ensaios de fase III em carcinoma da mama adjuvante com bevacizumab são dois e foram ambos negativos. O ensaio de fase III com o inibidor da tirosina cinase, sunitinib foi negativo, enquanto que os ensaios de fase II com os inibidores da tirosina cinase sorafenib e pazopanib melhoraram alguns indicadores de resposta e sobrevivência. A endostatina foi testada no contexto neoadjuvante com antraciclinas e melhorou a taxa de resposta, mas, mais ensaios são necessários para estabelecer este fármaco. A maioria dos ensaios clínicos dos agentes antiangiogénicos em carcinoma da mama reportaram aumento da taxa de resposta e de sobrevivência livre de doença mas nunca aumento da sobrevivência global quando comparado com quimioterapia isolada o que levou ao cepticismo a que assistimos atualmente em relação ao bloqueio da angiogénese. Ensaios clínicos selecionados em doentes específicas com objetivos translacionais relacionados com material biológico colhido, preferefencialmente em diferentes intervalos da terapêutica, serão cruciais para o bloqueio da angiogénese sobreviver como estratégia terapêutica em carcinoma da mama. Capítulo 7: A resposta à hipoxia medeia a resistência primária ao sunitinib em carcinoma da mama localmente avançado O sunitinib é um fármaco antiangiogénico que nunca foi avaliado isolado em doentes com carcinoma da mama não tratadas. O nosso objetivo foi caracaterizar a atividade do sunitinib isolado e em combinação com o docetaxel em carcinoma da mama não tratado, localmente avançado ou operável, mas de dimensão superior a 2 cm, para compreender os mecanismos de resposta. Doze doentes foram tratadas com duas semanas iniciais de sunitinib seguido de quatro ciclos de combinação de sunitinib e docetaxel. A resposta, a reistência e a toxicidade foram avaliadas de acordo com parametros clínicos, ressonância magnética nuclear, tomografia de emissão de positrões, histopatologia e perfis de expressão genómica. Detetámos resistência primária ao sunitinib na janela inicial de duas semanas, evidenciada em quatro doentes que não responderam. À data da cirurgia, cinco doentes tinham tumor viável na mama e axila, quatro tinahm tumor viável na mama e três foram retiradas do ensaio. Não houve respostas patológicas completas. A comparação dos perfis de expressão genómica entre os respondedores e os não respondedores, aos quinze dias iniciais, permitiu-nos identificar sobre expressão de VEGF e outras vias angiogénicas nos não respondedores. Especificamente, em tumores resistentes ao sunitinib isolado detectámos uma resposta transcricional à hipoxia caracterizada por sobre expressão de vários dos genes alvo do HIF1α. Neste ensaio de sunitinib isolado em doentes não tratadas com carcinoma da mama localmente avançado, encontrámos evidência molecular de resistência primária ao sunitinib possivelmente mediada por sobre expressão de genes que respondem à hipoxia. Parte 3: Quando parar a terapêutica sistémica às doentes com carcinoma da mama Capítulo 8: Agressividade terapêutica ns últimos três meses de vida num estudo retrospetivo dum centro único Incluímos todos os adultos que morreram com tumores sólidos na instituição em 2003 e foram tratados com quimioterapia para tratar neoplaias metastizadas. Colhemos dados detalhados relacionados com quimioterapia e toxicidade nos últimos três meses de vida a partir do processo clínico. Trezentas e dezanove doentes foram incluídos, a mediana de idade foi 61 anos. A mediana de sobrevivência de doença metastática foi de 11 meses. 66% (211) dos doentes foram tratados com QT nos últimos 3 meses de vida, 37% foram tratados com QT no úlimo mês de vida e 21% nas últimas duas semanas. Nos doentes que foram tratados com QT nos últimos três meses de vida, 50% começaram um novo regime terapêutico neste período e 14% começaram um novo regime no último mês. Identificámos como determinantes de tratamento com QT no fim de vida a idade jovem, o carcinoma da mama, do ovário e do pâncreas. Concluímos que administrámos QT no fim de vida frequentemente e iniciámos novos regimes terapêuticos no último mês de vida em 14% dos casos. Precisamos de aprofundar este trabalho para compreender se esta atitude agressiva resulta em melhor paliação de sintomas e qualidade de vida no fim de vida dos doentes com neoplasias disseminadas. Capítulo 9: O tratamento do carcinoma da mama no fim de vida está a mudar? Quisémos caracterizar a modificação da tendência no uso de QT e de estratégias paliativas no fim de vida das doentes com carcinoma da mama em diferentes instituições e em intervalos de tempo diferentes. Para isto selecionámos doentes que morreram de carcinoma da mama durante 6 anos, entre 2007 e 2012, num hospital geral e comparámos com as doentes que morreram de carcinoma da mama em 2003 num centro oncológico. Avaliámos um total de 232 doentes. O grupo mais recente tem 114 doentes e o grupo anterior tem 118 doentes. Usámos estatística descritiva para caracterizar QT no fim de vida e o uso de estratégias paliativas. Ambas as coortes são comparáveis em termos das características do carcinoma da mama. Observámos aumento do uso de estatégias paliativas: consulta da dor, consulta de cuidados paliativos e radioterapia paliativa no cuidado das doentes com carcinoma da mama metastizado. Evidenciámos aumento do número de mortes em serviços de cuidados paliativos. No entanto, a QT paliativa continua a ser prolongada até aos últimos meses de vida, embora tenhamos mostrado uma diminuição desta prática. Outros indicadores de agressividade como a admissão hospitalar também mostraram diminuição. Confirmámos a nossa hipótese de que há maior integração da medicina paliativa multidisciplinar e menos agressividade na terapêutica sistémica das doentes com carcinoma da mama nos últimos meses de vida. Chapter 10: Porque é que os nossos doentes são tratados com quimioterapia até ao fim da vida? (editorial) Este capítulo começa por dar o exmeplo duma jovem de 22 anos que viveu três meses após começar QT paliatva. Este caso epitomiza a futilidade terapêutica e é usado como ponto de partida para explorar as razões pelas quais administramos QT no fim de vida aos doentes quando é inútil, tóxica, logisticamente complexa e cara. Será que estamos a prescrever QT até tarde demais? Os oncologistas fazem previsões excessivamente otimistas e têm uma atitude pró terapêutica excessiva e são criticados por outros intervenientes nas instituições de saúde por isto. Crescentemente doentes, familiares, associações de doentes, definidores de políticas de saúde, jornalistas e a sociedade em geral afloram este tema mas tornam-se inconsistentes quando se trata dum doente próximo em que se modifica o discurso para que se façam terapêuticas sitémicas agressivas. Há uma crescente cultura de preservação da qualidade de vida, paliação, abordagem sintomática, referenciação a unidades de cuidados paliativos e outros temas do fim de vida dos doentes oncológicos terminais. Infelizmente, este tema tem ganhado momentum não porque os oncologistas estejam a refletir criticamente sobre a sua prática, mas porque os custos dos cuidados de saúde são crescentes e incomportáveis. Seja qual fôr o motivo, as razões que levam os oncologistas a administrar QT no fim de vida devem ser criticamente elucidadas. Mas há poucos dados para nos guiar nesta fase delicada da vida dos doentes e os que existem são por vezes irreconciliáveis, é uma revisão destes dados que foi feita neste capítulo. Conclusão: A abordagem do carcinoma da mama no futuro? Na conclusão, tenta-se olhar para o futuro e prever como será a tomada a cargo dum doente com carcioma da mama amanhã. Faz-se uma avaliação das várias àreas desde prevenção, rastreio, suscetibilidade genética e comportamental e terapêutica. Na terapêutica separa-se a terapêutica locoregional, sistémica adjuvante e da doença metastizada. Nos três últimos parágrafos a história duma mulher com um carcinoma localmente avançado que sobre expressa o recetor Her2, serve como ilustração de como devemos estar preparados para incorporar evolução, heterogeneidade e dinamismo no cuidado de doentes com carcinoma da mama. -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ABSTRACT: Introduction: Breast cancer care in the past This work starts with an overview of the treatment of breast cancer (BC). From the first reports of patients ill with BC until 1950. From 1950 until 2000, there is a more detailed account on how BC patients were treated with emphasis on the different modalities, local, regional and systemic treatments and their evolution. Part 1: Who to treat with adjuvant systemic therapy? Chapter 1: TNM is not dead in breast cancer It has been said that the current TNM staging system might not be suitable for predicting breast cancer (BC) outcomes and for making therapeutic decisions, especially for patients with screen detected BC which is smaller. The reason for this is also due to the non inclusion of tumor biology parameters in the current TNM system. We hypothesize that in a population where there is still a large abundance of non screen detected BC, with a low median age of incidence and abundance of high TNM staged lesions, biology is still second to classical staging in predicting prognosis. We analyzed a population of consecutive BC patients from a single institution during ten years. We characterized current established prognostic factors, classical staging variables included in the current TNM staging system and biological variables, currently not included in the TNM system. We quantified the capacity of individual prognostic factors to predict survival. We analyzed a population of 1699 consecutive BC patients. We found that individually both the TNM system prognostic factors and the biological prognostic factors are differing among BC survivors and dead patients in a statistically significant distribution. Explicitly, patients with larger tumors, positive nodes, higher stage lesions, ER negative, HER2 positive, TN or lower differentiation tumors show decreased survival. In the multivariate analysis we can conclude that in a population such as ours classical TNM staging variables, irrespective of tumor biological features, are still the most powerful outcome predictors. Chapter 2: Defining breast cancer prognosis: The predictive power and mechanism of centrosome alterations in breast cancer We performed a systematic analysis of the literature and compiled an extensive data set of gene expression data originated in primary tumours of BC patients with prognostic information. We analysed this data seeking for genes consistently up or down regulated in poor prognosis BC, i.e. that relapsed after initial treatment. In the course this bioinformatics analysis our lab identified 65 genes statistically significant across multiple datasets that can discriminate between relapsed and non-relapsed BC patients. Among the identified genes, we have detected genes such as MKI67, a marker of mitotic activity which is routinely used in the clinic. Unexpectedly, we also discovered several genes found to be involved in centrosome clustering, The most prominent of these is the kinesin KIFC1, also called HSET, and previously identified as regulator of centrosome clustering. Centrosome abnormalities (numerical, structural) have been observed in cancer. Indeed, compelling data has shown that cells from many cancers have multiple and abnormal centrosomes, that are either correlated with tumour malignancy or considered an early tumorigenesis event. However, extra centrosomes come at a cost and cells must be able to handle such abnormalities or otherwise die. Thus our results suggested a new mechanism of breast cancer progression with negative prognostic value. We aimed at quantifying the predictive power of centrosome clustering in BC clinical setting and at detecting this process in BC patient material. We validated the centrosome clustering genes KIFC1 and TACC3 in formalin fixed paraffin embedded (FFPE) BC patient material, using quantitative real-time PCR (RT-qPCR) technology. Our results indicate that the tested KIFC1 has a clear IHC signal (1) and that the protein expression patterns and levels correlate with prognosis, with relapsing patients having increased expression and nuclear localisation of this kinesin (2). Next we were able to show that centrosome clustering does occur in vivo. We identified centrosome amplification and clustering in breast cancer samples, and we established a fluorescence microscopy-based IHC approach by staining FFPE samples with centrosomal markers. Using this approach we have observed centrosome amplification and clustering in a small set of poor prognosis samples. By expanding the number of samples in which we have characterised the number of centrosomes, we were able to confirm our preliminary observation that centrosomes are clustered in relapsed BC. Part 2: How to treat breast cancer subtypes? Chapter 3: How many diseases is triple negative breast cancer? (review) Triple negative breast cancer is a subtype of breast cancer that does not express the estrogen receptor, the progesterone receptor and the epidermal growth factor receptor type 2 (Her2). These tumors are not yet treated with targeted therapies probably because no positive markers have been described to reliably classify them - they are described for what they are not. Perhaps for this reason, they are among the most aggressive of breast carcinomas, albeit with very heterogenous clinical behavior. The clinical observation that these patients do not carry a uniformly dismal prognosis, coupled with data coming from pathology and epidemiology, suggests that this negative definition is not capturing a single clinical entity, but several. We critically evaluate this evidence in this paper, reviewing clinical and epidemiological data, as well as molecular data. There is evidence for heterogeneity, but it is not clear how many diseases are grouped into triple negative breast cancer. Answering this question, and identifying the molecular basis of heterogeneity will help define prognosis and, eventually, the identification of new targeted therapies. Chapter 4: Systemic treatment for triple negative breast cancer (review) Chemotherapy remains the backbone of treatment for triple negative breast cancer (TNBC). Despite the appearance of new targeted and biologic agents there has been no targeted therapy validated for TNBC, possibly because the biology of TNBC has not been conclusively elucidated. Many studies have shown that TNBC derive significant benefit of chemotherapy in the neoadjuvant, adjuvant and metastatic treatment, possibly more benefit than other BC subtypes. Neoadjuvant chemotherapy studies have repeatedly shown higher response rates in TNBC than non-TNBC. Pathologic complete response has been shown to predict improved long term outcomes in BC. Although specific adjuvant regimens for TNBC are under study, third generation chemotherapy regimens utilizing dose dense or metronomic polychemotherapy are among the most effective tools presently available. The role of specific chemotherapy agents, namely platinum salts, in the treatment of TNBC remains undefined. Taxanes and anthracyclines are active in TNBC and remain important agents, but have not shown specific benefit over non-TNBC. TNBC is itself a heterogeneous group in which subgroups like basal like BC defined by higher proliferation and including those TNBC arising in BRCA1 mutation carriers may be more sensitive to platinum agents and relatively less sensitive to taxanes. The molecular characterization of TNBC is lacking and therefore the search for targeted therapy is still ongoing. Chapter 5: Randomized phase II study of the anti-epidermal growth factor receptor monoclonal antibody cetuximab with cisplatin versus cisplatin alone in patients with metastatic triple-negative breast cancer Epidermal growth factor receptor is overexpressed in metastatic triple-negative breast cancers, an aggressive subtype of breast cancer. Our randomized phase II study investigated cisplatin with or without cetuximab in this setting. Patients who had received no more than one previous chemotherapy regimen were randomly assigned on a 2:1 schedule to receive no more than six cycles of cisplatin plus cetuximab or cisplatin alone. Patients receiving cisplatin alone could switch to cisplatin plus cetuximab or cetuximab alone on disease progression. The primary end point was overall response rate (ORR). Secondary end points studied included progressionfree survival (PFS), overall survival (OS), and safety profiles. The full analysis set comprised 115 patients receiving cisplatin plus cetuximab and 58 receiving cisplatin alone; 31 patients whose disease progressed on cisplatin alone switched to cetuximab-containing therapy. The ORR was 20% with cisplatin plus cetuximab and 10% with cisplatin alone (odds ratio, 2.13). Cisplatin plus cetuximab resulted in longer PFS compared with cisplatin alone (median, 3.7 v 1.5 months; hazard ratio, 0.67. Corresponding median OS was 12.9 versus 9.4 months. While the primary study end point was not met, adding cetuximab to cisplatin doubled the ORR and appeared to prolong PFS and OS, warranting further investigation in mTNBC. Chapter 6: Blocking angiogenesis to treat breast cancer (review) Angiogenesis is a hallmark of cancer because tumors larger than 1mm need new vessels to sustain their growth. Since the discovery of the molecular players of this process and some inhibitors, that angiogenesis became a promising therapeutic target. Bevacizumab was the first molecular-targeted antiangiogenic therapy approved by the FDA and is used as first-line therapy in metastatic breast cancer. A second class of approved inhibitors (sunitinib, sorafenib, pazopanib and axitinib) include oral small-molecule tyrosine kinase inhibitors that target vascular endothelial growth factor receptors, platelet-derived growth factor receptors, and other kinases including KIT, Ret, BRAF and Flt-3, but none of these have gained approval to treat breast cancer. This review analyzes and summarizes data from clinical trials of anti-angiogenic agents in the treatment of BC. Phase III trials of bevacizumab in advanced BC have demonstrated a reduction in disease progression (22–52%), increased response rates and improvements in progression-free survival of 1.2 to 5.5 months, but no improvements in OS. Bevacizumab phase III trials in early BC have both been negative. Bevacizumab combined with chemotherapy is associated with more adverse events. Phase III trials of the tyrosine kinase inhibitor sunitinib were negative, while randomized phase II trials of sorafenib and pazopanib have improved some outcomes. Endostatin has been tested in neoadjuvant clinical trials in combination with anthracyclinebased chemotherapy in treatment-naive patients and has increased the clinical response rate, but more trials are needed to establish this drug. Most trials of anti-angiogenic agents in BC have reported improved RR and PFS but no increase in OS compared to chemotherapy alone, leading to skepticism towards blocking angiogenesis. Selected trials in selected BC populations with translational endpoints related to harvested tumor tissue and other biological material samples, preferentially at several timepoints, will be crucial if antiangiogenesis is to survive as a strategy to treat BC. Chapter 7: Does hypoxic response mediate primary resistance to sunitinib in untreated locally advanced breast cancer? The antiangiogenic drug sunitinib has never been evaluated as single agent in untreated BC patients. We aimed to characterize the activity of sunitinib, alone and with docetaxel, in untreated locally advanced or operable BC, and, to uncover the mechanisms of response. Twelve patients were treated with an upfront window of sunitinib followed by four cycles of sunitinib plus docetaxel. Response, resistance and toxicity were evaluated according to standard clinical parameters, magnetic resonance imaging, positron emission tomography, pathology characterization and gene expression profiling. We detected primary resistance to sunitinib upfront window in untreated BC, as evidenced by four non-responding patients. At surgery, five patients had viable disease in the breast and axilla, four had viable tumor cells in the breast alone and three were taken off study due to unacceptable toxicity and thus not evaluated. Early functional imaging was useful in predicting response. There were no pathologic complete responses (pCR). Comparison of gene expression profiling tumor data between early responders and non-responders allowed us to identify upregulation of VEGF and angiogenic pathways in non responders. Specifically, in tumors resistant to the single-agent sunitinib we detected a transcriptional response to hypoxia characterized by over-expression of several HIF1α target genes. In this report of single-agent sunitinib treatment of untreated localized BC patients, we found molecular evidence of primary resistance to sunitinib likely mediated by up-regulation of hypoxia responsive genes. Part 3: When to stop systemic treatment of breast cancer patients? Chapter 8: The aggressiveness of cancer care in the last three months of life: a retrospective single centre analysis. All adult patients with solid tumors who died in our hospital in 2003 and received chemotherapy for advanced cancer, were included. Detailed data concerning chemotherapy and toxicity, in the last three months of life, were collected from patientsʼ clinical charts. A total of 319 patients were included. Median age was 61 years. Median time from diagnosis of metastatic disease to death was 11 months. The proportion of patients who received chemotherapy in the last three months of life was 66% (n=211), in the last month 37% and in the last two weeks 21%. Among patients who received chemotherapy in the last three months of life, 50% started a new chemotherapy regimen in this period and 14% in the last month. There was an increased probability of receiving chemotherapy in the last three months of life in younger patients and in patients with breast, ovarian and pancreatic carcinomas. There was a large proportion of patients who received chemotherapy in the last three months of life, including initiation of a new regimen within the last 30 days. Thus, further study is needed to evaluate if such aggressive attitude results in better palliation of symptoms at the end of life. Chapter 9: Is breast cancer treatment in the end of life changing? We aimed to characterize the shifting trends in use of anti-cancer chemotherapy and palliative care approaches in the end of life of BC patients in different institutions and times. For this, we selected women that died of BC during six years, from 2007 to 2012, and were treated in a central acute care general hospital and compared it with the BC patients that died in 2003 and were treated in a large cancer center. We analyzed a total of 232 patients: the more recent group has 114 women and the older cohort has 118. We used descriptive statistics to characterize CT in the EoL and use of palliative care resources. Both populations were similar in terms of BC characteristics. We observed more palliative care resources, pain clinic, palliative care teams and palliative radiotherapy, involved in the care of MBC patients and a shift towards more deaths at hospices. Systemic anti cancer treatments continue to be prolonged until very late in patients’ lives, notwithstanding, we could show a decrease in the use of such treatments. Other indicators of aggressiveness, namely hospital admissions, also show a decrease. We confirmed our hypothesis that there is more integration of multidisciplinary palliative care and less aggressiveness in the treatment of metastatic cancer patients, specifically, use of palliative anti-cancer treatment and hospital admissions. Nonetheless, we use systemic therapy until too late with underutilization of palliative medicine. Chapter 10: Why do our patients get chemotherapy until the end of life? (editorial) The editorial starts with a clinical case of a 21 year old patient that lives three months after starting palliative chemotherapy for the first time, a case that illustrates therapeutic futility at the end of life. Why are we not ceasing chemotherapy when it is useless, toxic, logistically complex and expensive? Are we prescribing chemotherapy until too late in solid tumor patientsʼ lives? Medical oncologists have overly optimistic predictions and, excessive, treatment-prone attitude and they are criticized by other health care providers for this. Increasingly, patients, their families, advocacy groups, policy makers, journalists and society at large dwell on this topic, which is a perplexing conundrum, because sometimes they are the ones demanding not to stop aggressive systemic anticancer treatments, when it comes to their loved ones. There is a growing culture of awareness toward preserving quality of life, palliative care, symptom-directed care, hospice referral and end of life issues regarding terminal cancer patients. Sadly, this issue is gaining momentum, not because oncologists are questioning their practice but because health care costs are soaring. Whatever the motive, the reasons for administering chemotherapy at the end of life should be known. There are few and conflicting scientific data to guide treatments in this delicate setting and we review this evidence in this paper. Conclusion: What is the future of breast cancer care? This work ends with a view into the future of BC care. Looking into the different areas from prevention, screening, hereditary BC, local, regional and systemic treatments of adjuvant and metastatic patients. The last three paragraphs are a final comment where the story of a patient with Her2 positive locally advanced breast cancer is used as paradigm of evolution, heterogeneity and dynamism in the management of BC.

When the Line is Crossed... : Paths to Control and Sanction Behaviour Necessitating a State Reaction

The article presents a special form of a European comparative synopsis. For this case examples have been chosen ranging from administrative or minor (criminal) offences to increasingly serious offences and offenders. In this way it can be comparatively demonstrated how the criminal justice systems studied handle specific cases and whether they do so in a similar or different way.

Benchmarking therapeutic drug monitoring software: A review of available computer tools

Therapeutic drug monitoring (TDM) aims to optimize treatments by individualizing dosage regimens based on the measurement of blood concentrations. Dosage individualization to maintain concentrations within a target range requires pharmacokinetic and clinical capabilities. Bayesian calculations currently represent the gold standard TDM approach but require computation assistance. In recent decades computer programs have been developed to assist clinicians in this assignment. The aim of this survey was to assess and compare computer tools designed to support TDM clinical activities. The literature and the Internet were searched to identify software. All programs were tested on personal computers. Each program was scored against a standardized grid covering pharmacokinetic relevance, user friendliness, computing aspects, interfacing and storage. A weighting factor was applied to each criterion of the grid to account for its relative importance. To assess the robustness of the software, six representative clinical vignettes were processed through each of them. Altogether, 12 software tools were identified, tested and ranked, representing a comprehensive review of the available software. Numbers of drugs handled by the software vary widely (from two to 180), and eight programs offer users the possibility of adding new drug models based on population pharmacokinetic analyses. Bayesian computation to predict dosage adaptation from blood concentration (a posteriori adjustment) is performed by ten tools, while nine are also able to propose a priori dosage regimens, based only on individual patient covariates such as age, sex and bodyweight. Among those applying Bayesian calculation, MM-USC*PACK© uses the non-parametric approach. The top two programs emerging from this benchmark were MwPharm© and TCIWorks. Most other programs evaluated had good potential while being less sophisticated or less user friendly. Programs vary in complexity and might not fit all healthcare settings. Each software tool must therefore be regarded with respect to the individual needs of hospitals or clinicians. Programs should be easy and fast for routine activities, including for non-experienced users. Computer-assisted TDM is gaining growing interest and should further improve, especially in terms of information system interfacing, user friendliness, data storage capability and report generation.

Potentiel des liposomes pour l'injection intravitréenne de molécules thérapeutiques [Potential of liposomes for the intravitreal injection of therapeutic molecules].

Intravitreal administration has been widely used since 20 years and has been shown to improve the treatment of diseases of the posterior segment of the eye with infectious origin or in edematous maculopathies. This route of administration allows to achieve high concentration of drug in the vitreous and avoids the problems resulting from systemic administration. However, two basic problems limit the use of intravitreal therapy. Many drugs are rapidly cleared from the vitreous humor; therefore, to reach and to maintain effective therapy repeated injections are necessary. Repeated intravitreal injections increase the risk of endophthalmitis, damage to lens, retinal detachment. Moreover, some drugs provoke a local toxicity at their effective dose inducing side-effects and possible retinal lesions. In this context, the development and the use of new drug delivery systems for intravitreal administration are necessary to treat chronic ocular diseases. Among them, particulate systems such as liposomes have been widely studied. Liposomes are easily injectable and permit to reduce the toxicity and to increase the residence time of several drugs in the eye. They are also able to protect in vivo poorly-stable molecules from degradation such as peptides and nucleic acids. Some promising results have been obtained for the treatment of retinitis induced by cytomegalovirus in human and more recently for the treatment of uveitis in animal. Finally, the fate of liposomes in ocular tissues and fluids after their injection into the vitreous and their elimination routes begin to be more known.

Cardiovascular risk estimation and eligibility for statin therapy using different scoring systems in Europe: a population-based study in Switzerland

BACKGROUND: Recommendations for statin use for primary prevention of coronary heart disease (CHD) are based on estimation of the 10- year CHD risk. We compared the 10-year CHD risk assessments and eligibility percentages for statin therapy using three scoring algorithms currently used in Europe. METHODS: We studied 5683 women and men, aged 35-75, without overt cardiovascular disease (CVD), in a population-based study in Switzerland. We compared the 10-year CHD risk using three scoring schemes, i.e., the Framingham risk score (FRS) from the U.S. National Cholesterol Education Program's Adult Treatment Panel III (ATP III), the PROCAM scoring scheme from the International Atherosclerosis Society (IAS), and the European risk SCORE for low-risk countries, without and with extrapolation to 60 years as recommended by the European Society of Cardiology guidelines (ESC). With FRS and PROCAM, high-risk was defined as a 10- year risk of fatal or non-fatal CHD>20% and a 10-year risk of fatal CVD≥5% with SCORE. We compared the proportions of high-risk participants and eligibility for statin use according to these three schemes. For each guideline, we estimated the impact of increased statin use from current partial compliance to full compliance on potential CHD deaths averted over 10 years, using a success proportion of 27% for statins. RESULTS: Participants classified at high-risk (both genders) were 5.8% according to FRS and 3.0% to the PROCAM, whereas the European risk SCORE classified 12.5% at high-risk (15.4% with extrapolation to 60 years). For the primary prevention of CHD, 18.5% of participants were eligible for statin therapy using ATP III, 16.6% using IAS, and 10.3% using ESC (13.0% with extrapolation) because ESC guidelines recommend statin therapy only in high-risk subjects. In comparison with IAS, agreement to identify eligible adults for statins was good with ATP III, but moderate with ESC. Using a population perspective, a full compliance with ATP III guidelines would reduce up to 17.9% of the 24′ 310 CHD deaths expected over 10 years in Switzerland, 17.3% with IAS and 10.8% with ESC (11.5% with extrapolation). CONCLUSIONS: Full compliance with guidelines for statin therapy would result in substantial health benefits, but proportions of high-risk adults and eligible adults for statin use varied substantially depending on the scoring systems and corresponding guidelines used for estimating CHD risk in Europe.

Controversies about the enhanced vulnerability of the adolescent brain to develop addiction.

Adolescence, defined as a transition phase toward autonomy and independence, is a natural time of learning and adjustment, particularly in the setting of long-term goals and personal aspirations. It also is a period of heightened sensation seeking, including risk taking and reckless behaviors, which is a major cause of morbidity and mortality among teenagers. Recent observations suggest that a relative immaturity in frontal cortical neural systems may underlie the adolescent propensity for uninhibited risk taking and hazardous behaviors. However, converging preclinical and clinical studies do not support a simple model of frontal cortical immaturity, and there is substantial evidence that adolescents engage in dangerous activities, including drug abuse, despite knowing and understanding the risks involved. Therefore, a current consensus considers that much brain development during adolescence occurs in brain regions and systems that are critically involved in the perception and evaluation of risk and reward, leading to important changes in social and affective processing. Hence, rather than naive, immature and vulnerable, the adolescent brain, particularly the prefrontal cortex, should be considered as prewired for expecting novel experiences. In this perspective, thrill seeking may not represent a danger but rather a window of opportunities permitting the development of cognitive control through multiple experiences. However, if the maturation of brain systems implicated in self-regulation is contextually dependent, it is important to understand which experiences matter most. In particular, it is essential to unveil the underpinning mechanisms by which recurrent adverse episodes of stress or unrestricted access to drugs can shape the adolescent brain and potentially trigger life-long maladaptive responses.

Addiction and arousal: the hypocretin connection

The hypocretins, also known as orexins, are two neuropeptides now commonly described as critical components to maintain and regulate the stability of arousal. Several lines of evidence have raised the hypothesis that hypocretin-producing neurons are part of the circuitries that mediate the hypothalamic response to acute stress. Intracerebral administration of hypocretin leads to a dose-related reinstatement of drug and food seeking behaviors. Furthermore, stress-induced reinstatement can be blocked with hypocretin receptor 1 antagonism. These results, together with recent data showing that hypocretin is critically involved in cocaine sensitization through the recruitment of NMDA receptors in the ventral tegmental area, strongly suggest that activation of hypocretin neurons play a critical role in the development of the addiction process. The activity of hypocretin neurons may affect addictive behavior by contributing to brain sensitization or by modulating the brain reward system. Hypocretinergic cells, in coordination with brain stress systems may lead to a vulnerable state that facilitates the resumption of drug seeking behavior. Hence, the hypocretinergic system is a new drug target that may be used to prevent relapse of drug seeking

Residual antimalarials in malaria patients from Tanzania--implications on drug efficacy assessment and spread of parasite resistance.

Repeated antimalarial treatment for febrile episodes and self-treatment are common in malaria-endemic areas. The intake of antimalarials prior to participating in an in vivo study may alter treatment outcome and affect the interpretation of both efficacy and safety outcomes. We report the findings from baseline plasma sampling of malaria patients prior to inclusion into an in vivo study in Tanzania and discuss the implications of residual concentrations of antimalarials in this setting. In an in vivo study conducted in a rural area of Tanzania in 2008, baseline plasma samples from patients reporting no antimalarial intake within the last 28 days were screened for the presence of 14 antimalarials (parent drugs or metabolites) using liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. Among the 148 patients enrolled, 110 (74.3%) had at least one antimalarial in their plasma: 80 (54.1%) had lumefantrine above the lower limit of calibration (LLC = 4 ng/mL), 7 (4.7%) desbutyl-lumefantrine (4 ng/mL), 77 (52.0%) sulfadoxine (0.5 ng/mL), 15 (10.1%) pyrimethamine (0.5 ng/mL), 16 (10.8%) quinine (2.5 ng/mL) and none chloroquine (2.5 ng/mL). The proportion of patients with detectable antimalarial drug levels prior to enrollment into the study is worrying. Indeed artemether-lumefantrine was supposed to be available only at government health facilities. Although sulfadoxine-pyrimethamine is only recommended for intermittent preventive treatment in pregnancy (IPTp), it was still widely used in public and private health facilities and sold in drug shops. Self-reporting of previous drug intake is unreliable and thus screening for the presence of antimalarial drug levels should be considered in future in vivo studies to allow for accurate assessment of treatment outcome. Furthermore, persisting sub-therapeutic drug levels of antimalarials in a population could promote the spread of drug resistance. The knowledge on drug pressure in a given population is important to monitor standard treatment policy implementation.

Y1 receptor knockout increases nociception and prevents the anti-allodynic actions of NPY.

OBJECTIVE: Recent pharmacologic studies in our laboratory have suggested that the spinal neuropeptide Y (NPY) Y1 receptor contributes to pain inhibition and to the analgesic effects of NPY. To rule out off-target effects, the present study used Y1-receptor-deficient (-/-) mice to further explore the contribution of Y1 receptors to pain modulation. METHODS AND RESULTS: Y1(-/-) mice exhibited reduced latency in the hotplate test of acute pain and a longer-lasting heat allodynia in the complete Freund's adjuvant (CFA) model of inflammatory pain. Y1 deletion did not change CFA-induced inflammation. Upon targeting the spinal NPY systems with intrathecal drug delivery, NPY reduced tactile and heat allodynia in the CFA model and the partial sciatic nerve ligation model of neuropathic pain. Importantly, we show for the first time that NPY does not exert these anti-allodynic effects in Y1(-/-) mice. Furthermore, in nerve-injured CD1 mice, concomitant injection of the potent Y1 antagonist BIBO3304 prevented the anti-allodynic actions of NPY. Neither NPY nor BIBO3304 altered performance on the Rotorod test, arguing against an indirect effect of motor function. CONCLUSION: The Y1 receptor contributes to pain inhibition and to the analgesic effects of NPY.

Spectrum of digoxin-induced ocular toxicity: a case report and literature review.

BACKGROUND: Digoxin intoxication results in predominantly digestive, cardiac and neurological symptoms. This case is outstanding in that the intoxication occurred in a nonagenarian and induced severe, extensively documented visual symptoms as well as dysphagia and proprioceptive illusions. Moreover, it went undiagnosed for a whole month despite close medical follow-up, illustrating the difficulty in recognizing drug-induced effects in a polymorbid patient. CASE PRESENTATION: Digoxin 0.25 mg qd for atrial fibrillation was prescribed to a 91-year-old woman with an estimated creatinine clearance of 18 ml/min. Over the following 2-3 weeks she developed nausea, vomiting and dysphagia, snowy and blurry vision, photopsia, dyschromatopsia, aggravated pre-existing formed visual hallucinations and proprioceptive illusions. She saw her family doctor twice and visited the eye clinic once until, 1 month after starting digoxin, she was admitted to the emergency room. Intoxication was confirmed by a serum digoxin level of 5.7 ng/ml (reference range 0.8-2 ng/ml). After stopping digoxin, general symptoms resolved in a few days, but visual complaints persisted. Examination by the ophthalmologist revealed decreased visual acuity in both eyes, 4/10 in the right eye (OD) and 5/10 in the left eye (OS), decreased color vision as demonstrated by a score of 1/13 in both eyes (OU) on Ishihara pseudoisochromatic plates, OS cataract, and dry age-related macular degeneration (ARMD). Computerized static perimetry showed non-specific diffuse alterations suggestive of either bilateral retinopathy or optic neuropathy. Full-field electroretinography (ERG) disclosed moderate diffuse rod and cone dysfunction and multifocal ERG revealed central loss of function OU. Visual symptoms progressively improved over the next 2 months, but multifocal ERG did not. The patient was finally discharged home after a 5 week hospital stay. CONCLUSION: This case is a reminder of a complication of digoxin treatment to be considered by any treating physician. If digoxin is prescribed in a vulnerable patient, close monitoring is mandatory. In general, when facing a new health problem in a polymorbid patient, it is crucial to elicit a complete history, with all recent drug changes and detailed complaints, and to include a drug adverse reaction in the differential diagnosis.

Corporate Social Responsibility in the Oil and Gas Industry: Environmental Management Systems as a Source of Sustainable Development

The environmental aspect of corporate social responsibility (CSR) expressed through the process of the EMS implementation in the oil and gas companies is identified as the main subject of this research. In the theoretical part, the basic attention is paid to justification of a link between CSR and environmental management. The achievement of sustainable competitive advantage as a result of environmental capital growth and inclusion of the socially responsible activities in the corporate strategy is another issue that is of special significance here. Besides, two basic forms of environmental management systems (environmental decision support systems and environmental information management systems) are explored and their role in effective stakeholder interaction is tackled. The most crucial benefits of EMS are also analyzed to underline its importance as a source of sustainable development. Further research is based on the survey of 51 sampled oil and gas companies (both publicly owned and state owned ones) originated from different countries all over the world and providing reports on sustainability issues in the open access. To analyze their approach to sustainable development, a specifically designed evaluation matrix with 37 indicators developed in accordance with the General Reporting Initiative (GRI) guidelines for non-financial reporting was prepared. Additionally, the quality of environmental information disclosure was measured on the basis of a quality – quantity matrix. According to results of research, oil and gas companies prefer implementing reactive measures to the costly and knowledge-intensive proactive techniques for elimination of the negative environmental impacts. Besides, it was identified that the environmental performance disclosure is mostly rather limited, so that the quality of non-financial reporting can be judged as quite insufficient. In spite of the fact that most of the oil and gas companies in the sample claim the EMS to be embedded currently in their structure, they often do not provide any details for the process of their implementation. As a potential for the further development of EMS, author mentions possible integration of their different forms in a single entity, extension of existing structure on the basis of consolidation of the structural and strategic precautions as well as development of a unified certification standard instead of several ones that exist today in order to enhance control on the EMS implementation.