Functional properties of cell-seeded three-dimensionally woven poly(epsilon-caprolactone) scaffolds for cartilage tissue engineering.

Articular cartilage possesses complex mechanical properties that provide healthy joints the ability to bear repeated loads and maintain smooth articulating surfaces over an entire lifetime. In this study, we utilized a fiber-reinforced composite scaffold designed to mimic the anisotropic, nonlinear, and viscoelastic biomechanical characteristics of native cartilage as the basis for developing functional tissue-engineered constructs. Three-dimensionally woven poly(epsilon-caprolactone) (PCL) scaffolds were encapsulated with a fibrin hydrogel, seeded with human adipose-derived stem cells, and cultured for 28 days in chondrogenic culture conditions. Biomechanical testing showed that PCL-based constructs exhibited baseline compressive and shear properties similar to those of native cartilage and maintained these properties throughout the culture period, while supporting the synthesis of a collagen-rich extracellular matrix. Further, constructs displayed an equilibrium coefficient of friction similar to that of native articular cartilage (mu(eq) approximately 0.1-0.3) over the prescribed culture period. Our findings show that three-dimensionally woven PCL-fibrin composite scaffolds can be produced with cartilage-like mechanical properties, and that these engineered properties can be maintained in culture while seeded stem cells regenerate a new, functional tissue construct.

Jamming for a 2D granular material

This paper focuses on the nature of jamming, as seen in two-dimensional frictional granular systems consisting of photoelastic particles. The photoelastic technique is unique at this time, in its capability to provide detailed particle-scale information on forces and kinematic quantities such as particle displacements and rotations. These experiments first explore isotropic stress states near point J through measurements of the mean contact number per particle, Z, and the pressure, P as functions of the packing fraction, . In this case, the experiments show some but not all aspects of jamming, as expected on the basis of simulations and models that typically assume conservative, hence frictionless, forces between particles. Specifically, there is a rapid growth in Z, at a reasonable which we identify with as c. It is possible to fit Z and P, to power law expressions in - c above c, and to obtain exponents that are in agreement with simulations and models. However, the experiments differ from theory on several points, as typified by the rounding that is observed in Z and P near c. The application of shear to these same 2D granular systems leads to phenomena that are qualitatively different from the standard picture of jamming. In particular, there is a range of packing fractions below c, where the application of shear strain at constant leads to jammed stress-anisotropic states, i.e. they have a non-zero shear stress, τ. The application of shear strain to an initially isotropically compressed (hence jammed) state, does not lead to an unjammed state per se. Rather, shear strain at constant first leads to an increase of both τ and P. Additional strain leads to a succession of jammed states interspersed with relatively localized failures of the force network leading to other stress-anisotropic states that are jammed at typically somewhat lower stress. The locus of jammed states requires a state space that involves not only and τ, but also P. P, τ, and Z are all hysteretic functions of shear strain for fixed . However, we find that both P and τ are roughly linear functions of Z for strains large enough to jam the system. This implies that these shear-jammed states satisfy a Coulomb like-relation, τ = μP. © 2010 The Royal Society of Chemistry.

Transformation optics with photonic band gap media.

We introduce a class of optical media based on adiabatically modulated, dielectric-only, and potentially extremely low-loss, photonic crystals (PC). The media we describe represent a generalization of the eikonal limit of transformation optics (TO). The basis of the concept is the possibility to fit some equal frequency surfaces of certain PCs with elliptic surfaces, allowing them to mimic the dispersion relation of light in anisotropic effective media. PC cloaks and other TO devices operating at visible wavelengths can be constructed from optically transparent substances such as glasses, whose attenuation coefficient can be as small as 10 dB/km, suggesting the TO design methodology can be applied to the development of optical devices not limited by the losses inherent to metal-based, passive metamaterials.

Fluid flow control with transformation media.

We introduce a new concept for the manipulation of fluid flow around three-dimensional bodies. Inspired by transformation optics, the concept is based on a mathematical idea of coordinate transformations and physically implemented with anisotropic porous media permeable to the flow of fluids. In two situations-for an impermeable object placed either in a free-flowing fluid or in a fluid-filled porous medium-we show that the object can be coated with an inhomogeneous, anisotropic permeable medium, such as to preserve the flow that would have existed in the absence of the object. The proposed fluid flow cloak eliminates downstream wake and compensates viscous drag, hinting at the possibility of novel propulsion techniques.

Metamaterial-enhanced coupling between magnetic dipoles for efficient wireless power transfer

Nonradiative coupling between conductive coils is a candidate mechanism for wireless energy transfer applications. In this paper we propose a power relay system based on a near-field metamaterial superlens and present a thorough theoretical analysis of this system. We use time-harmonic circuit formalism to describe all interactions between two coils attached to external circuits and a slab of anisotropic medium with homogeneous permittivity and permeability. The fields of the coils are found in the point-dipole approximation using Sommerfeld integrals which are reduced to standard special functions in the long-wavelength limit. We show that, even with a realistic magnetic loss tangent of order 0.1, the power transfer efficiency with the slab can be an order of magnitude greater than free-space efficiency when the load resistance exceeds a certain threshold value. We also find that the volume occupied by the metamaterial between the coils can be greatly compressed by employing magnetic permeability with a large anisotropy ratio. © 2011 American Physical Society.

Universal quantum viscosity in a unitary Fermi gas.

A Fermi gas of atoms with resonant interactions is predicted to obey universal hydrodynamics, in which the shear viscosity and other transport coefficients are universal functions of the density and temperature. At low temperatures, the viscosity has a universal quantum scale ħ n, where n is the density and ħ is Planck's constant h divided by 2π, whereas at high temperatures the natural scale is p(T)(3)/ħ(2), where p(T) is the thermal momentum. We used breathing mode damping to measure the shear viscosity at low temperature. At high temperature T, we used anisotropic expansion of the cloud to find the viscosity, which exhibits precise T(3/2) scaling. In both experiments, universal hydrodynamic equations including friction and heating were used to extract the viscosity. We estimate the ratio of the shear viscosity to the entropy density and compare it with that of a perfect fluid.

Construction of invisibility cloaks of arbitrary shape and size using planar layers of metamaterials

Transformation optics (TO) is a powerful tool for the design of electromagnetic and optical devices with novel functionality derived from the unusual properties of the transformation media. In general, the fabrication of TO media is challenging, requiring spatially varying material properties with both anisotropic electric and magnetic responses. Though metamaterials have been proposed as a path for achieving such complex media, the required properties arising from the most general transformations remain elusive, and cannot implemented by state-of-the-art fabrication techniques. Here, we propose faceted approximations of TO media of arbitrary shape in which the volume of the TO device is divided into flat metamaterial layers. These layers can be readily implemented by standard fabrication and stacking techniques. We illustrate our approximation approach for the specific example of a two-dimensional, omnidirectional "invisibility cloak", and quantify its performance using the total scattering cross section as a practical figure of merit. © 2012 American Institute of Physics.

The effect of curing on the performance of ACF bonded chip-on-flex assemblies after thermal ageing

Purpose – Anisotropic conductive film (ACF) is now an attractive technology for direct mounting of chips onto the substrate as an alternative to lead-free solders. However, despite its various advantages over other technologies, it also has many unresolved reliability issues. For instance, the performance of ACF assembly in high temperature applications is questionable. The purpose of this paper is to study the effect of bonding temperatures on the curing of ACFs, and their mechanical and electrical performance after high temperature ageing. Design/methodology/approach – In the work presented in this paper, the curing degree of an ACF at different bonding temperatures was measured using a differential scanning calorimeter. The adhesion strength and the contact resistance of ACF bonded chip-on-flex assembly were measured before and after thermal ageing and the results were correlated with the curing degree of ACF. The ACF was an epoxy-based adhesive in which Au-Ni coated polymer particles were randomly dispersed. Findings – The results showed that higher bonding temperatures had resulted in better ACF curing and stronger adhesion. After ageing, the adhesion strength increased for the samples bonded at lower temperatures and decreased for the samples bonded at higher temperatures. ACF assemblies with higher degrees of curing showed smaller increases in contact resistance after ageing. Conduction gaps at the bump-particle and/or particle-pad interfaces were found with the help of scanning electron microscopy and are thought to be the root cause of the increase in contact resistance. Originality/value – The present study focuses on the effect of bonding temperatures on the curing of ACFs, and their adhesion strength and electrical performances after high temperature ageing. The results of this study may help the development of ACFs with higher heat resistance, so that ACFs can be considered as an alternative to lead-free solders.

Macro-Micro Modelling Analysis for High Density Packaged Flip Chips

A wide range of flip chip technologies with solder or adhesives have become dominant solutions for high density packaging applications due to the excellent electrical performance, high I/O density and good thermal performance. This paper discusses the use of modeling technique to predict the reliability of high density packaged flip chips in the humid environment. Reliability assessment is discussed for flip chip package at ultra-fine pitch with anisotropic conductive film (ACF). The purpose of this modeling work is to understand the role that moisture plays in the failure of ACF flip chips. A macro-micro 3D finite element modeling technique was used in order to make the multi-length-scale modeling of the ACF flip chip possible. Modeling results are consistent with the findings in the experimental work

Macro-micro modelling of moisture induced stresses in an ACF flip chip assembly

Purpose – This paper discusses the use of modelling techniques to predict the reliability of an anisotropic conductive film (ACF) flip chip in a humid environment. The purpose of this modelling work is to understand the role that moisture plays in the failure of ACF flip chips. Design/methodology/approach – A 3D macro-micro finite element modelling technique was used to determine the moisture diffusion and moisture-induced stresses inside the ACF flip chip. Findings – The results show that the ACF layer in the flip chip can be expected to be fully saturated with moisture after 3?h at 121°C, 100%RH, 2?atm test conditions. The swelling effect of the adhesive due to this moisture absorption causes predominately tensile stress at the interface between the adhesive and the metallization, which could cause a decrease in the contact area, and therefore an increase in the contact resistance. Originality/value – This paper introduces a macro-micro modelling technique which enables more detailed 3D modelling analysis of an ACF flip chip than previously.

Analyzing the performance of flexible substrates for lead-free applications

The performance of flexible substrates for lead-free applications was studied using finite element method (FEM). Firstly, the thermal induced stress in the flex substrate during the lead free solder reflow process was predicted. The shear stress at the interface between the copper track and flex was plotted. This shear stress increases with the thickness of the copper track and the thickness of the flex. Secondly, an anisotropic conductive film (ACF) flip chip was taken as a typical lead-free application of the flex substrate and the moisture effect on the reliability of ACF joints were studied using a 3D macro-micro modeling technique. It is found that the time to be saturated of an ACF flip chip is much dependent on the moisture diffusion rate in the polyimide substrate. The majority moisture diffuses into the ACF layer from the substrate side rather than the periphery of the ACF. The moisture induced stress was predicted and the predominant tensile stress was found at the interface between the conductive particle and metallization which could reduce the contact area and even cause the electrical failure

Failure mechanisms of ACF joints under isothermal ageing

The possible failure mechanisms of anisotropic conductive film (ACF) joints under isothermal ageing conditions have been identified through experiments. It has been found that ACF joints formed at higher bonding temperatures can prevent increases in the contact resistance for any ageing temperature. The higher the ageing temperature the higher the electrical failure rate is. The formation of conduction gaps between the conductive particles and the pads and damages to the metal coatings of the particle have been identified as the reasons behind the electrical failures during ageing. In order to understand the mechanism for the formation of the conduction gap and damages in metal coatings during the isothermal ageing, computer modelling has been carried out and the results are discussed extensively. The computer analysis shows that stresses concentrate at the edges of the particle–pad interface, where the adhesive matrix meets the particle. This could lead to subsequent damages and reductions in the adhesion strength in that region and it is possible for the conductive particle to be detached from the pad and the adhesive matrix. It is believed that because of this a conduction gap appears. Furthermore, under thermal loading the thermal expansion of the adhesive matrix squeezes the conductive particle and damages the metal coatings. Experimental evidences support this computational finding. It is, therefore, postulated that if an ACF-based electronic component operates in a high temperature aging condition, its electrical and mechanical functionalities will be at risk.

Singular stresses at the tip of a crack terminating at frictional interface of fibre reinforced composites

The stress singularities at the tip of a crack that terminates at a frictional interface between two layers in anisotropic composites are investigated. The order of stress singularities is determined by solving the characteristic equations obtained from the boundary conditions and the frictional interface conditions for the cases concerned. The interface is assumed to be governed by Coulomb's law of friction. Numerical results are presented for the cases with a crack terminating at a frictional interface of a fibre reinforced composite, and it is shown that there is a big difference of stress singularities between cases with and without considering friction along the interface.

Drifter observations in the summer time Bay of Biscay slope current

During the summer of 2012, 20 surface drifters drogued at 50 m depth were deployed on the continental slope to the north of the Bay of Biscay. Initially after release the drifters all crossed the slope, with 14 continuing equatorward, parallel to the slope following an absolute dynamic topography feature and 6 returning to the slope, in an eddy, visible in chlorophyll-a maps. Lagrangian statistics show an anisotropic flow field that becomes less tied to the absolute dynamic topography and increasingly dominated by diffusion and eddy processes. A weaker tie to the absolute dynamic topography allowed for total of 8 of the drifters crossed from the deep water onto the shelf, showing pathways for flow across the slope. A combination of drifter trajectories, absolute dynamic topography and chlorophyll-a concentration maps have been used to show that small anticyclonic eddies, tied to the complex slope topography provide a mechanism for on shelf transport. During the summer, the presence of these eddies can be seen in surface chlorophyll-a maps.

Drifter observations in the summer time Bay of Biscay slope current

During the summer of 2012, 20 surface drifters drogued at 50 m depth were deployed on the continental slope to the north of the Bay of Biscay. Initially after release the drifters all crossed the slope, with 14 continuing equatorward, parallel to the slope following an absolute dynamic topography feature and 6 returning to the slope, in an eddy, visible in chlorophyll-a maps. Lagrangian statistics show an anisotropic flow field that becomes less tied to the absolute dynamic topography and increasingly dominated by diffusion and eddy processes. A weaker tie to the absolute dynamic topography allowed for total of 8 of the drifters crossed from the deep water onto the shelf, showing pathways for flow across the slope. A combination of drifter trajectories, absolute dynamic topography and chlorophyll-a concentration maps have been used to show that small anticyclonic eddies, tied to the complex slope topography provide a mechanism for on shelf transport. During the summer, the presence of these eddies can be seen in surface chlorophyll-a maps.