Segmentation and Segregation Patterns of Women-Owned High-Tech Firms in Four Metropolitan Regions in the United States

Mayer H. Segmentation and segregation patterns of women-owned high-tech firms in four metropolitan regions in the United States, Regional Studies. The number of women starting and owning a business has increased dramatically and female entrepreneurs are entering non-traditional sectors such as high technology, construction and manufacturing. This paper investigates the trends in high-tech entrepreneurship by women in four US metropolitan regions (Silicon Valley, California; Boston, Massachusetts; Washington, DC; and Portland, Oregon). The research examines the sectoral and spatial segmentation patterns of women-owned high-tech firms. Although women are entering non-traditional sectors, the research finds that women entrepreneurs tend to own businesses in female-typed high-tech sectors. In established high-tech regions like Silicon Valley and Boston, male-typed and female-typed women-owned high-tech firms differ significantly in terms of sectoral and spatial segmentation regardless of firm age. While differences between male-typed and female-typed firms are not significant at the regional level for Washington, DC, the analysis shows significant intra-metropolitan differences for the female-typed high-tech firms. The paper concludes that sectoral and spatial segmentation are powerful dynamics that shape business ownership by women in high technology.

How Firms Make Friends: Communities in Private-Collective Innovation

When firms contribute to open source projects, they in fact invest into public goods which may be used by everyone, even by their competitors. This seemingly paradoxical behavior can be explained by the model of private-collective innovation where private investors participate in collective action. Previous literature has shown that companies benefit through the production process providing them with unique incentives such as learning and reputation effects. By contributing to open source projects firms are able to build a network of external individuals and organizations participating in the creation and development of the software. As will be shown in this doctoral dissertation firm-sponsored communities involve the formation of interorganizational relationships which eventually may lead to a source of sustained competitive advantage. However, managing a largely independent open source community is a challenging balancing act between exertion of control to appropriate value creation, and openness in order to gain and preserve credibility and motivate external contributions. Therefore, this dissertation consisting of an introductory chapter and three separate research papers analyzes characteristics of firm-driven open source communities, finds reasons why and mechanisms by which companies facilitate the creation of such networks, and shows how firms can benefit most from their communities.

Ethnic disparity in defensive coping endothelial responses: The SABPA study

OBJECTIVES Defensive coping (DefS) in Blacks has been associated with greater cardiovascular risk than in their White counterparts. We examined associations between endothelial function mental stress responses and markers of vascular structure in a bi-ethnic cohort. METHODS We examined vascular function and structure in 368 Black (43.84±8.31years) and White Africans (44.78±10.90years). Fasting blood samples, 24h blood pressure, left carotid intima-media thickness of the far wall (L-CIMTf), and left carotid cross-sectional wall area (L-CSWA) values were obtained. von Willebrand factor (VWF), endothelin-1 (ET-1) and nitric oxide metabolite (NOx) responses to the Stroop mental stress test were calculated to assess endothelial function. DefS was assessed using the Coping Strategy Indicator questionnaire. Interaction between main effects was demonstrated for 283 participants with DefS scores above the mean of 26 for L-CIMTf. RESULTS Blunted stress responses for VWF (men 16.71% vs. 51.10%; women 0.85% vs. 42.09%, respectively) and NOx (men -64.52% vs. 74.89%; women -76.16% vs. 113.29%, respectively) were evident in the DefS Blacks compared to the DefS Whites (p<0.001). ET-1 increased more in Blacks (men 150% and women 227%, p<0.001) compared to the Whites (men 61.25% and women 35.49%, p<0.001). Ambulatory pulse pressure, but not endothelial function markers, contributed to L-CIMTf (ΔR(2)=0.11 p<0.001), and L-CSWA (ΔR(2)=0.08, p<0.001) in DefS African men but not in any other group. CONCLUSIONS Blunted stress-induced NOx and VWF responses and augmented ET-1 responses in DefS Blacks indicate endothelial dysfunction. DefS may facilitate disturbed endothelial responses and enforce vascular remodelling via compensatory increases in pulse pressure in Black men. These observations may indicate an increased risk of cardiovascular incidents via functional and structural changes of the vasculature in DefS Blacks.

Smaller but denser: postmortem changes alter the CT characteristics of subdural hematomas

PURPOSE The aim of this study was to investigate if (1) the volume of subdural hematomas (SDH), midline shift, and CT density of subdural hematomas are altered by postmortem changes and (2) if these changes are dependent on the postmortem interval (PMI). MATERIALS AND METHODS Ante mortem computed tomography (AMCT) of the head was compared to corresponding postmortem CT (PMCT) in 19 adults with SDH. SDH volume, midline shift, and hematoma density were measured on both AMCT and PMCT and their differences assessed using Wilcoxon-Signed Rank Test. Spearman's Rho Test was used to assess significant correlations between the PMI and the alterations of SDH volume, midline shift, and hematoma density. RESULTS Mean time between last AMCT and PMCT was 109 h, mean PMI was 35 h. On PMCT mean midline displacement was decreased by 57% (p < 0.001); mean SDH volume was decreased by 38% (p < 0.001); and mean hematoma density was increased by 18% (p < 0.001) in comparison to AMCT. There was no correlation between the PMI and the normalization of the midline shift (p = 0.706), the reduction of SDH volume (p = 0.366), or the increase of hematoma density (p = 0.140). CONCLUSIONS This study reveals that normal postmortem changes significantly affect the extent and imaging characteristics of subdural hematoma and may therefore affect the interpretation of these findings on PMCT. Radiologists and forensic pathologists who use PMCT must be aware of these phenomena in order to correctly interpret PMCT findings in cases of subdural hemorrhages.

Strategy and Circumstance: the Response of American Firms to Japanese Competition in Semiconductors, 1980-1995

The transistor was an American invention, and American firms led the world in semiconductor production and innovation for the first three decades of that industry's existence. In the 1980s, however, Japanese producers began to challenge American dominance. Shrill cries arose from the literature of public policy, warning that the American semiconductor industry would soon share the fate of the lamented American consumer electronics business. Few dissented from the implications: the only hope for salvation would be to adopt Japanese-style public policies and imitate the kinds of capabilities Japanese firms possessed. But the predicted extinction never occurred. Instead, American firms surged back during the 1990s, and it now seems the Japanese who are embattled. This striking American turnaround has gone largely unremarked upon in the public policy literature. And even scholarship in strategic management, which thrives on stories of success instead of stories of failure, has been comparatively silent. Drawing on a more thorough economic history of the worldwide semiconductor industry (Langlois and Steinmueller 1999), this essay attempts to collect some of the lessons for strategy research of the American resurgence. We argue that, although some of the American response did consist in changing or augmenting capabilities, most of the renewed American success is in fact the result not of imitating superior Japanese capabilities but rather of taking good advantage of a set of capabilities developed in the heyday of American dominance. Serendipity played at least as important a role as did strategy.

Cervical cancer screening in Hispanic women as compared with other ethnic groups on an urban campus

Although Pap screening has decreased morbidity and mortality from cervical cancer, reported statistics indicate that among ethnic groups, Hispanic women are one of the least likely to follow screening guidelines. Human papillomavirus (HPV), a major risk factor for cervical cancer, as well as pre-cancerous lesions, may be detected by early Pap screening. With a reported 43% prevalence of HPV infection in college women, regular Pap screening is important. The purpose of this descriptive, cross-sectional survey was to examine self-reported cervical cancer screening rates in a target population of primarily Mexican-American college women, and to discover if recognized correlates for screening behavior explained differences in screening rates between this and two other predominant groups on the University of Houston Downtown campus, non-Hispanic white and African-American. The sample size consisted of 613 women recruited from summer 2003 classes. A survey, adapted from an earlier El Paso study, and based on constructs of the Health Belief Model (HBM), was administered to women ages 18 and older. It was found that although screening rates were similar across ethnic groups, overall, the Hispanic group obtained screening less frequently, though this did not reach statistical significance. However, a significant difference in lower screening rates was found in Mexican American women ages <25. Additionally, of the predicted correlates, the construct of perceived barriers from the HBM was most significant for the Mexican American group for non-screening. For all groups, knowledge about cervical cancer was negatively correlated with ever obtaining Pap screening and screening within the past year. This implies that if health counseling is given at the time of women's screening visits, both adherence to appropriate screening intervals and risk factor avoidance may be more likely. Studies such as these are needed to address both screening behaviors and likelihood of follow-up for abnormal results in populations of multicultural, urban college women. ^

Ethnic differences in adolescents' mental distress

Objectives. The aims of this cross-sectional study were to (1) examine differences among four ethnic groups of middle school students (Anglos, African Americans [AAs], Hispanics, and Asians) on (a) three indicators of mental distress (depression, somatic symptoms, suicidal ideation) (b) social stress (general social stress, process-oriented stress, discrimination) and resources (family relationships, coping, self-esteem) and (2) identify significant risk factors and resources for each ethnic group by examining the moderating effects of ethnicity. ^ Methods. Respondents included 316 students from three schools (144 Anglos, 66 AAs, 77 Hispanics, 29 Asians/Others) who completed self-administered questionnaires. Social stress and somatic symptoms were measured by using the SAFE-C and Somatic Symptom Scale, respectively. The DSD was used to assess depression and suicidal ideation. Resources were measured by using the FES, age-appropriate adaptations of two existing coping scales, and Rosenberg's Self-Esteem Scale. For specific aims, descriptive statistics, ANOVA, ANCOVA, and logistic regression analysis were used. ^ Findings. No statistically significant ethnic group or gender differences were observed in depression and somatic symptoms, but the odds of experiencing depression symptoms were about 9.7 times greater for Hispanic females than for the referent group, Anglo males. Hispanics were also 2.04 times more likely to have suicidal ideation than Anglos ( P < 0.05). AAs and Hispanics reported significantly higher levels of stress than Anglos (OR: 2.2–4.3, 0.00 ≤ P ≤ 0.03). These findings imply that adolescents in these ethnic groups may be exposed to considerable amounts of stress even if they do not exhibit significant symptoms of mental distress yet. Negative moderating effects for ethnicity were found by the significant interaction between ethnicity and social stress in somatic symptoms among AAs and Hispanics. This finding indicates that AA and Hispanic adolescents may require higher levels of social stress to exhibit the same amount of somatic symptoms as Anglo adolescents. Observed ethnic differences in social stress and interaction between social stress and ethnicity in relation to somatic symptoms demonstrated a need for subsequent longitudinal studies, and provided a rationale for incorporating social stress as a critical component not only in research but also in culturally sensitive prevention programs. ^

Prostate cancer in Texas: Addressing racial and ethnic disparities

Racial disparities in prostate cancer are of public health concern. This dissertation used Texas Cancer Registry data to examine racial disparities in prostate cancer incidence for Texas over the period 1995–1998 and subsequent mortality through the year 2001. Incidence, mortality, treatment, and risk factors for survival were examined. It was found that non-Hispanic blacks have higher incidence and mortality from prostate cancer than non-Hispanic whites, and that Hispanics and non-Hispanic Asians are roughly similar to non-Hispanic whites in cancer survival. The incidence rates in non-Hispanic whites were spread more evenly across the age spectrum compared to other racial and ethnic groups. Non-Hispanic blacks were more often diagnosed at a higher stage of disease. All racial and ethnic groups in the Registry had lower death rates from non-prostate cancer causes than non-Hispanic whites. Age, stage and grade all conferred about the same relative risks of all-cause and prostate cancer survival within each racial and ethnic group examined. Radiation treatment for non-Hispanic blacks and Hispanics did not confer a relative risk of survival statistically significantly different from surgery, whereas it conferred greater survival in non-Hispanic whites. However, non-Hispanic blacks were statistically significantly less likely to have received radiation treatment, while controlling for age, stage, and grade. Among only those who died of prostate cancer, non-Hispanic blacks were less likely to have received radiation than were non-Hispanic whites, whereas among those who had not died, non-Hispanic blacks were more likely to have received this treatment. Hispanics were less likely to have received radiation whether they died from prostate cancer or not. All racial and ethnic groups were less likely than Non-Hispanic whites to have received surgery. Non-Hispanic blacks and Hispanics were more likely than non-Hispanic whites to have received hormonal treatment. The findings are interpreted with caution with regard to the limitations of data quality and missing information. Results are discussed in the context of previous work, and public health implications are pondered. This study confirms some earlier findings, identifies treatment as one possible source of disparity in prostate cancer mortality, and contributes to understanding the epidemiology of prostate cancer in Hispanics. ^

Are Indian Firms too Small? A Nonparametric Analysis of Cost Efficiency and Industry Structure of Indian Manufacturing

In this paper we use the 2004-05 Annual Survey of Industries data to estimate the levels of cost efficiency of Indian manufacturing firms in the various states and also get state level measures of industrial organization (IO) efficiency. The empirical results show the presence of considerable cost inefficiency in a majority of the states. Further, we also find that, on average, Indian firms are too small. Consolidating them to attain the optimal scale would further enhance efficiency and lower average cost.

Shirking and Motivation in Firms: Survey Evidence on Worker Attitudes

In an extensive national survey, 82.7% of the respondents report that they are very likely to keep an agreement to work hard if they agreed to, even if it was almost impossible for their employer to monitor them. Based on mean responses, the rank order of motivations in descending importance is: moral, intrinsic, peer-pressure, and positive incentives. Respondents also report that fairness considerations are important and that they are especially likely to keep agreements to do a good job with honest employers. Logit analysis indicates that increases in moral and intrinsic motivations increase the likelihood of keeping agreements to provide effort. The evidence suggests that we need to re-examine a foundational assumption underlying the theory of the firm.

Effect of maternal weight status on the relationship between prenatal smoking and infant birth weight

The purpose of this study was to assess the effect of maternal pre-pregnancy weight status on the relationship between prenatal smoking and infant birth weight (IBW). Prenatal cigarette smoking and maternal weight exert opposing effects on IBW; smoking decreases birth weight while maternal pre-pregnancy weight is positively correlated with birth weight. As such, mutual effect modification may be sufficiently significant to alter the independent effects of these two birth weight correlates. Finding of such an effect has implications of prenatal smoking cessation education. Perception of risk is an important determinant of smoking cessation, and reduced or low birth weight (LBW) as a smoking-associated risk predominates prenatal smoking counseling and education. In a population such as the US, where obesity is becoming epidemic, particularly among minority and low-income groups, perception of risk may be lowered should increased maternal size attenuate the effect of smoking. Previous studies have not found a significant interaction effect of prenatal smoking and maternal pre-pregnancy weight on IBW; however, use of self-reported smoking status may have biased findings. Reliability of self-reported smoking status reported in the literature is variable, with deception rates ranging from a low of 5% to as high as 16%. This study, using data from a prenatal smoking cessation project, in which smoking status was validated by saliva cotinine, was an opportunity to assess effect modification of smoking and maternal weight using biochemically determined smoking status in lieu of self report. Stratified by saliva cotinine, 151 women from a prenatal smoking cessation cohort, who were 18 years and older and had full-term, singleton births, were included in this study. The effect of smoking in terms of mean birth weight across three levels of maternal pre-pregnancy weight was assessed by general linear modeling procedures, adjusting for other known correlates of IBW. Effect modification was marginally significant, p = .104, but only with control for differential effects among racial/ethnic groups. A smaller than planned sample of nonsmokers, or women who quit smoking during the pregnancy, prohibited rejection of the null hypothesis of no difference in the effect of smoking across levels of pre-pregnancy weight. ^

Racial and ethnic disparities in diabetes mellitus and hypertension: Influence of income and insurance status in a cross-sectional study of the United States

Racial/ethnic disparities in diabetes mellitus (DM) and hypertension (HTN) have been observed and explained by socioeconomic status (education level, income level, etc.), screening, early diagnosis, treatment, prognostic factors, and adherence to treatment regimens. To the author's knowledge, there are no studies addressing disparities in hypertension and diabetes mellitus utilizing Hispanics as the reference racial/ethnic group and adjusting for sociodemographics and prognostic factors. This present study examined racial/ethnic disparities in HTN and DM and assessed whether this disparity is explained by sociodemographics. To assess these associations, the study utilized a cross-sectional design and examined the distribution of the covariates for racial/ethnic group differences, using the Pearson Chi Square statistic. The study focused on Non-Hispanic Blacks since this ethnic group is associated with the worst health outcomes. Logistic regression was used to estimate the prevalence odds ratio (POR) and to adjust for the confounding effects of the covariates. Results indicated that except for insurance coverage, there were statistically significant differences between Non-Hispanic Blacks and Non-Hispanic Whites, as well as Hispanics with respect to study covariates. In the unadjusted logistic regression model, there was a statistically significant increased prevalence of hypertension among Non-Hispanic Blacks compared to Hispanics, POR 1.36, 95% CI 1.02-1.80. Low income was statistically significantly associated with increased prevalence of hypertension, POR 0.38, 95% CI 0.32-0.46. Insurance coverage, though not statistically significant, was associated with an increase in the prevalence of hypertension, p>0.05. Concerning DM, Non-Hispanic Blacks were more likely to be diabetic, POR 1.10, 95% CI 0.85-1.47. High income was statistically significantly associated with decreased prevalence of DM, POR 0.47, 95% CI 0.39-0.57. After adjustment for the relevant covariates, the racial disparities between Hispanics and Non-Hispanic Blacks in HTN was removed, adjusted prevalence odds (APOR) 1.21, 95% CI 0.88-1.67. In this sample, there was racial/ethnic disparity in hypertension but not in diabetes mellitus between Hispanics and Non-Hispanic Blacks, with disparities in hypertension associated with socioeconomic status (family income, education, marital status) and also by alcohol, physical activity and age. However, race, education and BMI as class variables were statistically significantly associated with hypertension and diabetes mellitus p<0.0001. ^

Colorectal cancer screening: Racial/ethnic and gender disparities in a population-based cross-sectional analysis of the United States

Gender and racial/ethnic disparities in colorectal cancer screening (CRC) has been observed and associated with income status, education level, treatment and late diagnosis. According to the American Cancer Society, among both males and females, CRC is the third most frequently diagnosed type of cancer and accounts for 10% of cancer deaths in the United States. Differences in CRC test use have been documented and limited to access to health care, demographics and health behaviors, but few studies have examined the correlates of CRC screening test use by gender. This present study examined the prevalence of CRC screening test use and assessed whether disparities are explained by gender and racial/ethnic differences. To assess these associations, the study utilized a cross-sectional design and examined the distribution of the covariates for gender and racial/ethnic group differences using the chi square statistic. Logistic regression was used to estimate the prevalence odds ratio and to adjust for the confounding effects of the covariates. ^ Results indicated there are disparities in the use of CRC screening test use and there were statistically significant difference in the prevalence for both FOBT and endoscopy screening between gender, χ2, p≤0.003. Females had a lower prevalence of endoscopy colorectal cancer screening than males when adjusting for age and education (OR 0.88, 95% CI 0.82–0.95). However, no statistically significant difference was reported between racial/ethnic groups, χ 2 p≤0.179 after adjusting for age, education and gender. For both FOBT and endoscopy screening Non-Hispanic Blacks and Hispanics had a lower prevalence of screening compared with Non-Hispanic Whites. In the multivariable regression model, the gender disparities could largely be explained by age, income status, education level, and marital status. Overall, individuals between the age "70–79" years old, were married, with some college education and income greater than $20,000 were associated with a higher prevalence of colorectal cancer screening test use within gender and racial/ethnic groups. ^

A qualitative assessment of multi-level nutrition strategies for reducing racial and ethnic disparities in diabetes

The purpose of this study is to examine the stages of program realization of the interventions that the Bronx Health REACH program initiated at various levels to improve nutrition as a means for reducing racial and ethnic disparities in diabetes. This study was based on secondary analyses of qualitative data collected through the Bronx Health REACH Nutrition Project, a project conducted under the auspices of the Institute on Urban Family Health, with support from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Local human subjects' review and approval through the Institute on Urban Family Health was required and obtained in order to conduct the Bronx Health REACH Nutrition Project. ^ The study drew from two theoretical models—Glanz and colleagues' nutrition environments model and Shediac-Rizkallah and Bone's sustainability model. The specific study objectives were two-fold: (1) to categorize each nutrition activity to a specific dimension (i.e. consumer, organizational or community nutrition environment); and (2) to evaluate the stage at which the program has been realized (i.e. development, implementation or sustainability). ^ A case study approach was applied and a constant comparative method was used to analyze the data. Triangulation of data based was also conducted. Qualitative data from this study revealed the following principal findings: (1) communities of color are disproportionately experiencing numerous individual and environmental factors contributing to the disparities in diabetes; (2) multi-level strategies that targeted the individual, organizational and community nutrition environments can appropriately address these contributing factors; (3) the nutrition strategies greatly varied in their ability to appropriately meet criteria for the three program stages; and (4) those nutrition strategies most likely to succeed (a) conveyed consistent and culturally relevant messages, (b) had continued involvement from program staff and partners, (c) were able to adapt over time or setting, (d) had a program champion and a training component, (e) were integrated into partnering organizations, and (f) were perceived to be successful by program staff and partners in their efforts to create individual, organizational and community/policy change. As a result of the criteria-based assessment and qualitative findings, an ecological framework elaborating on Glanz and colleagues model was developed. The qualitative findings and the resulting ecological framework developed from this study will help public health professionals and community leaders to develop and implement sustainable multi-level nutrition strategies for addressing racial and ethnic disparities in diabetes. ^