In the bank or on the ground : an examination of financial reserves in Australian international aid organisations

This study contributes to the understanding of the contribution of financial reserves to sustaining nonprofit organisations. Recognising the limited recent Australian research in the area of nonprofit financial vulnerability, it specifically examines financial reserves held by signatories to the Code of Conduct of the Australian Council for International Development (ACFID) for the years 2006 to 2010. As this period includes the Global Financial Crisis, it presents a unique opportunity to observe the role of savings in a period of heightened financial threats to sustainability. The need for nonprofit entities to maintain reserves, while appearing intuitively evident, is neither unanimously accepted nor supported by established theoretic constructs. Some early frameworks attempt to explain the savings behaviour of nonprofit organisations and its role in organisational sustainability. Where researchers have considered the issue, its treatment has usually been either purely descriptive or alternatively, peripheral to a broader attempt to predict financial vulnerability. Given the importance of nonprofit entities to civil society, the sustainability of these organisations during times of economic contraction, such as the recent Global Financial Crisis, is a significant issue. Widespread failure of nonprofits, or even the perception of failure, will directly affect, not only those individuals who access their public goods and services, but would also have impacts on public confidence in both government and the sectors’ ability to manage and achieve their purpose. This study attempts to ‘shine a light’ on the paradox inherent in considering nonprofit savings. On the one hand, a public prevailing view is that nonprofit organisations should not hoard and indeed, should spend all of their funds on the direct achievement of their purposes. Against this, is the commonsense need for a financial buffer if only to allow for the day to day contingencies of pay rises and cost increases. At the entity level, the extent of reserves accumulated (or not) is an important consideration for Management Boards. The general public are also interested in knowing the level of funds held by nonprofits as a measure of both their commitment to purpose and as an indicator of their effectiveness. There is a need to communicate the level and prevalence of reserve holdings, balancing the prudent hedging of uncertainty against a sense of resource hoarding in the mind of donors. Finally, funders (especially governments) are interested in knowing the appropriate level of reserves to facilitate the ongoing sustainability of the sector. This is particularly so where organisations are involved in the provision of essential public goods and services. At a scholarly level, the study seeks to provide a rationale for this behaviour within the context of appropriate theory. At a practical level, the study seeks to give an indication of the drivers for savings, the actual levels of reserves held within the sector studied, as well as an indication as to whether the presence of reserves did mitigate the effects of financial turmoil during the Global Financial Crisis. The argument is not whether there is a need to ensure sustainability of nonprofits, but rather how it is to be done and whether the holding of reserves (net assets) is an essential element is achieving this. While the study offers no simple answers, it does appear that the organisations studied present as two groups, the ‘savers’ who build reserves and keep ‘money in the bank’ and ‘spender-delivers’ who put their resources ‘on the ground’. To progress an understanding of this dichotomy, the study suggests a need to move from its current approach to one which needs to more closely explore accounts based empirical donor attitude and nonprofit Management Board strategy.

Drugs and the autonomic nervous system

The nervous systems can initially be divided up into the central and peripheral nervous systems. The central nervous system is the brain and spinal cord and drugs that modify the central nervous system are considered as a subject in systematic pharmacology (therapeutics) section. Everything neural, other that the central nervous system, can be considered peripheral nervous systems. The peripheral nervous systems can be divided into the autonomic(involuntary) nervous system, which is the system that performs without your conscious help, and the somatic or voluntary nervous system, which you can consciously control(Figure 7.1). In addition the autonomic nervous system is divided into the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems...

The impact of fatigue caused by sprint running on the median power frequency of the hamstring muscle group

Hamstring strain injuries (HSI) are the predominant non-contact injury in many sports. Intermittent running has been shown to result in preferential reductions in eccentric hamstring strength, which increase the risk of sustaining a HSI. The eccentric specific nature of this decline in hamstring function implicates central mechanisms, as peripheral fatigue mechanisms tend to impact upon both concentric and eccentric contractions modes. However, neural function of the hamstrings, such as the median power frequency (MPF) of the surface electromyography signal has yet to be examined in the fatigued hamstring following intermittent sprint running. AIM: To determine the impact of fatigue induced by intermittent sprinting on the MPF of the medial and lateral hamstring muscles. METHODS: Fifteen recreationally active males completed 18 × 20m overground sprints. Maximal strength (concentric and eccentric knee flexor and concentric knee extensor) was determined isokinetically at the velocities of ±180.s-1 and ±60.s- while hamstring muscle activation was assessed using surface electromyography, before and 15 minutes after the running protocol. RESULTS: Overground intermittent running caused a significant reduction in eccentric knee flexor strength (27.2 Nm; 95% CI = 11.2 to 43.3; p=0.0001) but not concentric strength (9.3 Nm; 95% CI = -6.7 to 25.3; P=0.6361). Following the overground running, MPF of the lateral hamstrings showed a significant decline eccentrically (0.86; 95% CI = 0.59 to 1.54; P=0.038) and concentrically (0.76; 95%CI = 0.66 to 0.83; P=0.039). Similar declines in MPF were also noted in the medial hamstrings eccentrically (1.54; 95% CI = 0.59 to 7.9; P=0.005) and concentrically (1.18; 95% CI = 0.44 to 6.8; P=0.040). CONCLUSION: Whilst sprint running induced fatigue led to a eccentric specific reduction in knee flexor torque, MPF was suppressed across both contraction modes. This would indicate that factors associated with the decline in MPF do not appear to explain the contraction mode-specific loss of strength after intermittent sprints. This would implicate other central mechanisms, such as declines in voluntary activation, in explaining the eccentric specific decline in strength seen following sprint running.

Effect of body position on measurements of diffusion capacity after exercise

Background--Pulmonary diffusing capacity for carbon monoxide (Dlco), alveolar capillary membrane diffusing capacity (Dm), and pulmonary capillary blood volume (Vc) are all significantly reduced after exercise. Objective--To investigate whether measurement position affects this impaired gas transfer. Methods--Before and one, two, and four hours after incremental cycle ergometer exercise to fatigue, single breath Dlco, Dm, and Vc measurements were obtained in 10 healthy men in a randomly assigned supine and upright seated position. Results--After exercise, Dlco, Dm, and Vc were significantly depressed compared with baseline in both positions. The supine position produced significantly higher values over time for Dlco (5.22 (0.13) v 4.66 (0.15) ml/min/mm Hg/l, p = 0.022) and Dm (6.78 (0.19) v 6.03 (0.19) ml/min/mm Hg/l, p = 0.016), but there was no significant position effect for Vc. There was a similar pattern of change over time for Dlco, Dm, and Vc in the two positions. Conclusions--The change in Dlco after exercise appears to be primarily due to a decrease in Vc. Although the mechanism for the reduction in Vc cannot be determined from these data, passive relocation of blood to the periphery as the result of gravity can be discounted, suggesting that active vasoconstriction of the pulmonary vasculature and/or peripheral vasodilatation is occurring after exercise.

Comparison of cervical and blood T-cell responses to human papillomavirus-16 in women with human papillomavirus-associated cervical intraepithelial neoplasia

Human papillomaviruses (HPVs) are obligate epithelial pathogens and typically cause localized mucosal infections. We therefore hypothesized that T-cell responses to HPV antigens would be greater at sites of pathology than in the blood. Focusing on HPV-16 because of its association with cervical cancer, the magnitude of HPV-specific T-cell responses at the cervix was compared with those in the peripheral blood by intracellular cytokine staining following direct ex vivo stimulation with both virus-like particles assembled from the major capsid protein L1, and the major HPV oncoprotein, E7. We show that both CD4 + and CD8 + T cells from the cervix responded to the HPV-16 antigens and that interferon-γ (IFN-γ) production was HPV type-specific. Comparing HPV-specific T-cell IFN-γ responses at the cervix with those in the blood, we found that while CD4 + and CD8 + T-cell responses to L1 were significantly correlated between compartments (P = 0.02 and P = 0.05, respectively), IFN-γ responses in both T-cell subsets were significantly greater in magnitude at the cervix than in peripheral blood (P = 0.02 and P = 0.003, respectively). In contrast, both CD4 + and CD8 + T-cell IFN-γ responses to E7 were of similar magnitude in both compartments and CD8 + responses were significantly correlated between these distinct immunological compartments (P = 0.04). We therefore show that inflammatory T-cell responses against L1 (but not E7) demonstrate clear compartmental bias and the magnitude of these responses do reflect local viral replication but that correlation of HPV-specific responses between compartments indicates their linkage.

HIV-1 subtype C Pr55gag virus-like particle vaccine efficiently boosts baboons primed with a matched DNA vaccine

A DNA vaccine expressing human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) southern African subtype C Gag (pTHGag) and a recombinant baculovirus Pr55gag virus-like particle prepared using a subtype C Pr55gag protein (Gag VLP) was tested in a prime-boost inoculation regimen in Chacma baboons. The response of five baboons to Gag peptides in a gamma interferon (IFN-γ) enzyme-linked immunospot (ELISPOT) assay after three pTHGag immunizations ranged from 100 to 515 spot-forming units (s.f.u.) per 106 peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs), whilst the response of two baboons to the Gag VLP vaccine ranged from 415 to 465 s.f.u. per 106 PBMCs. An increase in the Gag-specific response to a range of 775-3583 s.f.u. per 106 PBMCs was achieved by boosting with Gag VLPs the five baboons that were primed with pTHGag. No improvement in Gag responses was achieved in this prime-boost inoculation regimen by increasing the number of pTHGag inoculations to six. IFN-γ responses were mapped to several peptides, some of which have been reported to be targeted by PBMCs from HIV-1 subtype C-infected individuals. Gag VLPs, given as a single-modality regimen, induced a predominantly CD8+ T-cell IFN-γ response and interleukin-2 was a major cytokine within a mix of predominantly Th1 cytokines produced by a DNA-VLP prime-boost modality. The prime-boost inoculation regimen induced high serum p24 antibody titres in all baboons, which were several fold above that induced by the individual vaccines. Overall, this study demonstrated that these DNA prime/VLP boost vaccine regimens are highly immunogenic in baboons, inducing high-magnitude and broad multifunctional responses, providing support for the development of these products for clinical trials. © 2008 SGM.

Corneal changes following short-term rigid contact lens wear

Purpose: The aim of this cross-over study was to investigate the changes in corneal thickness, anterior and posterior corneal topography, corneal refractive power and ocular wavefront aberrations, following the short term use of rigid contact lenses. Method: Fourteen participants wore 4 different types of contact lenses (RGP lenses of 9.5 mm and 10.5 mm diameter, and for comparison a PMMA lens of 9.5 mm diameter and a soft silicone hydrogel lens) on 4 different days for a period of 8 h on each day. Measures were collected before and after contact lens wear and additionally on a baseline day. Results: Anterior corneal curvature generally showed a flattening with both of the RGP lenses and a steepening with the PMMA lens. A significant negative correlation was found between the change in corneal swelling and central and peripheral posterior corneal curvature (all p ≤ 0.001). RGP contact lenses caused a significant decrease in corneal refractive power (hyperopic shift) of approximately 0.5 D. The PMMA contact lenses caused the greatest corneal swelling in both the central (27.92 ± 15.49 μm, p < 0.001) and peripheral (17.78 ± 12.11 μm, p = 0.001) corneal regions, a significant flattening of the posterior cornea and an increase in ocular aberrations (all p ≤ 0.05). Conclusion: The corneal swelling associated with RGP lenses was relatively minor, but there was slight central corneal flattening and a clinically significant hyperopic change in corneal refractive power after the first day of lens wear. The PMMA contact lenses resulted in significant corneal swelling and reduced optical performance of the cornea.

Post-match changes in neuromuscular function and the relationship to match demands in amateur rugby league matches

Objectives: The current study investigated the change in neuromuscular contractile properties following competitive rugby league matches and the relationship with physical match demands. Design: Eleven trained, male rugby league players participated in 2–3 amateur, competitive matches (n = 30). Methods: Prior to, immediately (within 15-min) and 2 h post-match, players performed repeated counter-movement jumps (CMJ) followed by isometric tests on the right knee extensors for maximal voluntary contraction (MVC), voluntary activation (VA) and evoked twitch contractile properties of peak twitch force (Pt), rate of torque development (RTD), contraction duration (CD) and relaxation rate (RR). During each match, players wore 1 Hz Global Positioning Satellite devices to record distance and speeds of matches. Further, matches were filmed and underwent notational analysis for number of total body collisions. Results: Total, high-intensity, very-high intensity distances covered and mean speed were 5585 ± 1078 m, 661 ± 265, 216 ± 121 m and 75 ± 14 m min−1, respectively. MVC was significantly reduced immediately and 2 h post-match by 8 ± 11 and 12 ± 13% from pre-match (p < 0.05). Moreover, twitch contractile properties indicated a suppression of Pt, RTD and RR immediately post-match (p < 0.05). However, VA was not significantly altered from pre-match (90 ± 9%), immediately-post (89 ± 9%) or 2 h post (89 ± 8%), (p > 0.05). Correlation analyses indicated that total playing time (r = −0.50) and mean speed (r = −0.40) were moderately associated to the change in post-match MVC, while mean speed (r = 0.35) was moderately associated to VA. Conclusions: The present study highlights the physical demands of competitive amateur rugby league result in interruption of peripheral contractile function, and post-match voluntary torque suppression may be associated with match playing time and mean speeds.

(Mis)Using Pulse Oximetry : A Review of Pulse Oximetry use in Acute Care Medical Wards

Background: Nurses routinely use pulse oximetry (SpO2) monitoring equipment in acute care. Interpretation of the reading involves physical assessment and awareness of parameters including temperature, haemoglobin, and peripheral perfusion. However, there is little information on whether these clinical signs are routinely measured or used in pulse oximetry interpretation by nurses. Aim: The aim of this study was to review current practice of SpO2 measurement and the associated documentation of the physiological data that is required for accurate interpretation of the readings. The study reviewed the documentation practices relevant to SpO2 in five medical wards of a tertiary level metropolitan hospital. Method: A prospective casenote audit was conducted on random days over a three-month period. The audit tool had been validated in a previous study. Results: One hundred and seventy seven episodes of oxygen saturation monitoring were reviewed. Our study revealed a lack of parameters to validate the SpO2 readings. Only 10% of the casenotes reviewed had sufficient physiological data to meaningfully interpret the SpO2 reading and only 38% had an arterial blood gas as a comparator. Nursing notes rarely documented clinical interpretation of the results. Conclusion: The audits suggest that medical and nursing staff are not interpreting the pulse oximetry results in context and that the majority of the results were normal with no clinical indication for performing this observation. This reduces the usefulness of such readings and questions the appropriateness of performing “routine” SpO2 in this context.

A yellow filter improves response times to low-contrast targets and traffic hazards

Purpose Anecdotal evidence suggests that some sunglass users prefer yellow tints for outdoor activities, such as driving, and research has suggested that such tints improve the apparent contrast and brightness of real-world objects. The aim of this study was to establish whether yellow filters resulted in objective improvements in performance for visual tasks relevant to driving. Methods Response times of nine young (age [mean ± SD], 31.4 ± 6.7 years) and nine older (age, [mean ± SD], 74.6 ± 4.8) adults were measured using video presentations of traffic hazards (driving hazard perception task) and a simple low-contrast grating appeared at random peripheral locations on a computer screen. Response times were compared when participants wore a yellow filter (with and without a linear polarizer) versus a neutral density filter (with and without a linear polarizer). All lens combinations were matched to have similar luminance transmittances (˜27%). Results In the driving hazard perception task, the young but not the older participants responded significantly more rapidly to hazards when wearing a yellow filter than with a luminance-matched neutral density filter (mean difference, 450 milliseconds). In the low-contrast grating task, younger participants also responded more quickly for the yellow filter condition but only when combined with a polarizer. Although response times increased with increasing stimulus eccentricity for the low-contrast grating task, for the younger participants, this slowing of response times with increased eccentricity was reduced in the presence of a yellow filter, indicating that perception of more peripheral objects may be improved by this filter combination. Conclusions Yellow filters improve response times for younger adults for visual tasks relevant to driving.

Evaluation of Eph receptor and ephrin expression within the human cornea and limbus

Eph receptor tyrosine kinases and their ligands, the ephrins, regulate the development and maintenance of multiple organs but little is known about their potential role within the cornea. The purpose of this study was to perform a thorough investigation of Eph/ephrin expression within the human cornea including the limbal stem cell niche. Initially, immunohistochemistry was performed on human donor eyes to determine the spatial distribution of Eph receptors and ephrins in the cornea and limbus. Patterns of Eph/ephrin gene expression in (1) immortalised human corneal endothelial (B4G12) or corneal epithelial (HCE-T) cell lines, and (2) primary cultures of epithelial or stromal cells established from the corneal limbus of cadaveric eye tissue were then assessed by reverse transcription (RT) PCR. Limbal epithelial or stromal cells from primary cultures were also assessed for evidence of Eph/ephrin-reactivity by immunofluorescence. Immunoreactivity for ephrinA1 and EphB4 was detected in the corneal endothelium of donor eyes. EphB4 was also consistently detected in the limbal and corneal epithelium and in cells located in the stroma of the peripheral cornea. Expression of multiple Eph/ephrin genes was detected in immortalised corneal epithelial and endothelial cell lines. Evidence of Eph/ephrin gene expression was also demonstrated in primary cultures of human limbal stromal (EphB4, B6; ephrinA5) and epithelial cells (EphA1, A2; ephrinA5, B2) using both RT-PCR and immunofluorescence. The expression of Eph receptors and ephrins within the human cornea and limbus is much wider than previously appreciated and suggests multiple potential roles for these molecules in the maintenance of normal corneal architecture.

The fishtown series

Fishtown is a series of mediated animated works which embody artistic conceptions of ambience and explore the interplay between foreground and background. The series draws upon a representation of natural patterns and rhythms in the ambient environment and is produced using a hybrid style of animation process that incorporates motion capture, dynamics and keyframe animation to construct a biomemtic peripheral rhythm. The display of the work is a crucial part of the project, and contributes a considerable amount to the reception of the work. Based on the ambient conceptions defined by Cage, Eno and Bizzocchi, ambient animation should incorporate some form of ambient display. As Eno (1978) states, it should be as ignorable as it is interesting. The ultimate intention is to place the work outside the gallery setting, to provide a more neutral ambient setting for the viewing of the work, and therefore the use of an ambient display is necessary if the work is to be situated in an ambient setting. Craig Walsh is a contemporary artist producing work for large scale projections in ambient settings. Completing Walsh's masterclass in 2011 (Tanawha Arts and Ecology Centre) has been an important factor in arriving at a strategy for the display of the Fishtown series. The most recent work in the Fishtown series was developed during a residency at the Crane Arts studios in Philadelphia USA in August 2012, and is comprised of a screen based animated work, utilizing large scale digital projection. Documentation of this work can be found at the Crane Arts Residency Website: http://cranearts.qcagriffith.com/crane-arts-residency-chris-denaro

The hyperthermic patient

Concepts used in this chapter include: Thermoregulation:- Thermoregulation refers to the body’s sophisticated, multi-system regulation of core body temperature. This hierarchical system extends from highly thermo-sensitive neurons in the preoptic region of the brain proximate to the rostral hypothalamus, down to the brain stem and spinal cord. Coupled with receptors in the skin and spine, both central and peripheral information on body temperature is integrated to inform and activate the homeostatic mechanisms which maintain our core temperature at 37oC1. Hyperthermia:- An imbalance between the metabolic and external heat accumulated in the body and the loss of heat from the body2. Exertional heat stroke:- A disorder of excessive heat production coupled with insufficient heat dissipation which occurs in un-acclimated individuals who are engaging in over-exertion in hot and humid conditions. This phenomenon includes central nervous system dysfunction and critical dysfunction to all organ systems including renal, cardiovascular, musculoskeletal and hepatic functions. Non-exertional heat stroke:- In contrast to exertional heatstroke as a consequence of high heat production during strenuous exercise, non-exertional heatstroke results from prolonged exposure to high ambient temperature. The elderly, those with chronic health conditions and children are particularly susceptible.3 Rhabdomylosis:- An acute, sometimes fatal disease characterised by destruction of skeletal muscle. In exertional heat stroke, rhabdomylosis occurs in the context of strenuous exercise when mechanical and/or metabolic stress damages the skeletal muscle, causing elevated serum creatine kinease. Associated with this is the potential development of hyperkalemia, myoglobinuria and renal failure. Malignant hyperthermia:- Malignant hyperthermia is “an inherited subclinical myopathy characterised by a hypermetabolic reaction during anaesthesia. The reaction is related to skeletal muscle calcium dysregulation triggered by volatile inhaled anaesthetics and/or succinylcholine.”4 Presentation includes skeletal muscle rigidity, mixed metabolic and respiratory acidosis, tachycardia, hyperpyrexia, rhabdomylosis, hyperkalaemia, elevated serum creatine kinease, multi-organ failure, disseminated intravascular coagulation and death.5

The hypothermic patient

Concepts used in this chapter include: Thermoregulation:- Thermoregulation refers to the body’s sophisticated, multi-system regulation of core body temperature. This hierarchical system extends from highly thermo-sensitive neurons in the preoptic region of the brain proximate to the rostral hypothalamus, down to the brain stem and spinal cord. Coupled with receptors in the skin and spine, both central and peripheral information on body temperature is integrated to inform and activate the homeostatic mechanisms which maintain our core temperature at 37oC.1 Body heat is lost through the skin, via respiration and excretions. The skin is perhaps the most important organ in regulating heat loss. Hyporthermia:- Hypothermia is defined as core body temperature less than 350C and is the result of imbalance between the body’s heat production and heat loss mechanisms. Hypothermia may be accidental, or induced for clinical benefit i.e: neurological protection (therapeutic hypothermia). External environmental conditions are the most common cause of accidental hypothermia, but not the only causes of hypothermia in humans. Other causes include metabolic imbalance; trauma; neurological and infectious disease; and exposure to toxins such as organophosphates. Therapeutic Hypothermia:- In some circumstances, hypothermia can be induced to protect neurological functioning as a result of the associated decrease in cerebral metabolism and energy consumption. Reduction in the extent of degenerative processes associated with periods of ischaemia such as excitotoxic cascade; apoptotic and necrotic cell death; microglial activation; oxidative stress and inflammation associated with ischaemia are averted or minimised.2 Mild hypothermia is the only effective treatment confirmed clinically for improving the neurological outcomes of patient’s comatose following cardiac arrest.3

The effects of acute exercise-induced cortisol on CCR2 expression on human monocytes

CC-chemokine receptor 2 (CCR2) and its ligand, monocyte chemotactic protein-1 (MCP-1, also known as CCL2), are crucial for the recruitment of monocytes/macrophages to sites of inflammation. We conducted a series of experiments to investigate the relationship between stress, monocyte CCR2 expression and migration activity. First, we collected peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC) from untrained subjects (n=8) and measured CCR2 expression on CD14(+) monocytes cultured with cortisol, epinephrine and norepinephrine. Second, we collected PBMC from the subjects before and after they cycled for 60 min at 70% peak O(2) uptake (VO2(peak)), and measured alterations in CCR2 expression on monocytes following exercise. Third, we cultured PBMC with serum obtained before and after exercise and the glucocorticoid antagonist RU-486 to determine the effect of cortisol on CCR2 expression in vitro. Last, we measured the ability of PBMC treated with serum or cortisol to migrate through membrane filters in response to CCL2. Cortisol (but not epinephrine or norepinephrine) increased CCR2 expression on monocytes in a dose- and time-dependent manner. Exercise did not influence CCR2 expression on PBMC, whereas incubation of PBMC with post-exercise serum significantly increased CCR2 expression. Both cortisol and post-exercise serum increased the migration of PBMC toward CCL2. The increase in CCR2 expression on PBMC following stimulation with cortisol and serum was blocked by the glucocorticoid receptor antagonist RU-486. In conclusion, cortisol released during exercise increased monocyte CCR2 expression and migration activity in vitro. These alterations may influence inflammation and regeneration of damaged tissue after acute stress.