Association between Long-Term Exposure to Traffic-Related Air Pollution and Subclinical Atherosclerosis: The REGICOR Study

Background: Epidemiological evidence of the effects of long-term exposure to air pollu tion on the chronic processes of athero genesis is limited. Objective: We investigated the association of long-term exposure to traffic-related air pollu tion with subclinical atherosclerosis, measured by carotid intima media thickness (IMT) and ankle���brachial index (ABI). Methods: We performed a cross-sectional analysis using data collected during the reexamination (2007���2010) of 2,780 participants in the REGICOR (Registre Giron�� del Cor: the Gerona Heart Register) study, a population-based prospective cohort in Girona, Spain. Long-term exposure across residences was calculated as the last 10 years��� time-weighted average of residential nitrogen dioxide (NO2) estimates (based on a local-scale land-use regression model), traffic intensity in the nearest street, and traffic intensity in a 100 m buffer. Associations with IMT and ABI were estimated using linear regression and multinomial logistic regression, respectively, controlling for sex, age, smoking status, education, marital status, and several other potential confounders or intermediates. Results: Exposure contrasts between the 5th and 95th percentiles for NO2 (25 ��g/m), traffic intensity in the nearest street (15,000 vehicles/day), and traffic load within 100 m (7,200,000 vehicle-m/day) were associated with differences of 0.56% (95% CI: ���1.5, 2.6%), 2.32% (95% CI: 0.48, 4.17%), and 1.91% (95% CI: ���0.24, 4.06) percent difference in IMT, respectively. Exposures were positively associated with an ABI of > 1.3, but not an ABI of < 0.9. Stronger associations were observed among those with a high level of education and in men ��� 60 years of age. Conclusions: Long-term traffic-related exposures were associated with subclinical markers of atherosclerosis. Prospective studies are needed to confirm associations and further examine differences among population subgroups.key words: ankle���brachial index, average daily traffic, cardiovascular disease, exposure assessment, exposure to tailpipe emissions, intima media thickness, land use regression model, Mediterranean diet, nitrogen dioxide

Efecto de los usos del suelo en la emisi��n de di��xido de carbono del suelo a la atm��sfera en un agroecosistema semi��rido del Valle del Ebro

Los cambios en los usos del suelo han contribuido de manera importante al incremento de gases de efecto invernadero en la atm��sfera, especialmente de di��xido de carbono, aumentando sus emisiones desde 1970 en un 80%. Estos cambios causan la alteraci��n de los suelos provocando un impacto sobre el ciclo del carbono, aumentando las tasas de descomposici��n de la fracci��n org��nica creando as�� un flujo de CO2 a la atmosfera. Entre las recomendaciones del Panel Intergubernamental de expertos sobre el Cambio Clim��tico (IPCC, en ingl��s), y contemplado en el Protocolo de Kyoto, se encuentra el proceso de secuestro de carbono en suelos, que implica la eliminaci��n del CO2 atmosf��rico por parte de las plantas y su almacenamiento como materia org��nica del suelo. Para poder favorecer dicho proceso, en un determinado tipo de ecosistema, es fundamental conocer cu��les son los factores que gobiernan la respiraci��n del suelo y el impacto que tienen los diferentes usos en la emisi��n de CO2. En el presente trabajo se han estudiado 4 usos del suelo representativos del secano aragon��s: un monocultivo de cebada en siembra directa (NT), un suelo abandonado labrado (AC), un suelo abandonado no alterado (AU) y un suelo forestal (FR) con el objetivo de conocer sus tasas de respiraci��n, la influencia de diferentes par��metros ed��ficos en ellas, y proponer cambios en el uso del suelo que ayuden a mitigar estas emisiones. Adem��s, se ha dedicado un apartado para conocer c��mo influyen diferentes t��cnicas de fertilizaci��n nitrogenada (mineral y org��nica) en la respiraci��n de un monocultivo de cebada en siembra directa. En cuanto a los usos, los resultados obtenidos tanto in situ como en laboratorio muestran una mayor respiraci��n en AC, siendo los valores m��s bajos los de NT y FR. Una de las principales conclusiones es que la supresi��n del laboreo y del periodo de barbecho largo, as�� como la conversi��n de tierras abandonadas y marginales a cultivos y zonas forestales se presentan en este tipo de ecosistemas como pr��cticas de secuestro de carbono. En el estudio de aplicaci��n de fertilizantes, no se observ�� ning��n cambio en la respiraci��n del suelo despu��s de la aplicaci��n de nitr��geno mineral. En cambio, el suelo fertilizado con pur��n s�� que mostr�� picos de emisi��n durante las siguientes horas a la incorporaci��n de ��ste, debido fundamentalmente a su alto contenido de carbono l��bil.

Rural Food System Change in Tanzania during the Post-Ujamaa Era. A Case Study from Western Bagamoyo District

Food systems in Sub-Saharan Africa have been rapidly transforming during the recent decades with diverse outcomes on human development and environment. This study explores the food system change in rural villages in eastern Tanzania where subsistence agriculture has traditionally been the main source of livelihood. The focus is on the salient changes in the spatial dimensions and structural composition of the food system in the context of economic liberalization that has taken place after the end of the socialist <i>ujamaa</i> era in the mid-1980s. In addition, the linkages of the changes are examined in relation to food security, socio-economic situation, livelihoods, and local environment. The approach of the study is geographical, but also involves various multi-disciplinary elements, particularly from development studies. The research methods included thematic and questionnaire interviews, participatory tools, and the analysis of land use/ cover data and official documents. Several earlier studies that were made in the area during the late 1970s and 1980s provided an important reference base. The study shows that subsistence farming has lost its dominant role in food provisioning due to the declining productivity of land, livestock losses, and the increasing shift of labour to non-farm sectors. Also rapid population growth has added to the pressure on land and other natural resources. Despite the increasing need for money for buying marketed foods and other necessities, the nutritional situation shows improvement and severe malnutrition has diminished. However, the long-term sustainability of this transformation raises concerns. Firstly, the food security situation continues to be fragile and prone to shocks such as adverse climatic conditions, crop failures and price hikes. Secondly, the commodification of the food system and livelihoods in general is linked to rapid environmental degradation in the area, particularly the loss of soil fertility and deforestation. The situation calls for efforts that take more determined and holistic approaches towards sustainable development of the rural food system with particular focus on the role and viability of small-scale farming.

Environmental adaptation of the source of the subbasin of Rico Stream, Monte Alto - SP, Brazil

The aim of this study was to define the photographic patterns that represent the use and occupation of the landcover of the "spring" of the Rico Stream subbasin, located at Monte Alto, state of S��o Paulo (SP), Brazil, for environmental adaptation regarding the Brazilian Forest Law. The mapping was performed using remote sensing techniques and visual interpretation of the World View image, followed by the digitalization of the net of drainage and vegetation (natural and agricultural) at the AutoCad software with documents and field work. The study area has 2141.53 ha and the results demonstrated that the main crop is sugarcane with 546.34 ha, followed by 251.22 ha of pastures, 191.71 ha of perennial crops, 57.31 ha of Eucalyptus and 49.52 ha of onion, confirming the advance of sugarcane culture in the region. The region has 375.04 ha of areas of permanent preservation (APPs), and of this area it was found that only 72.17 ha (19.24%) has arboreal vegetation or natural forest, and 302.87 ha of these areas need to be enriched and reforested with native vegetation from the region, according to the current legislation. The data of the area enable future proposals of models for environmental adaptation to the microbasin according to the current environmental legislation.

Juridisen kaksinkertaisen verotuksen problematiikka kansainv��lisess�� yritystoiminnassa

T��ss�� tutkielmassa tarkastellaan kansainv��lisess�� yritystoiminnassa esiintyvi�� juridisen kaksinkertaisen verotuksen ongelmatilanteita suomalaisten yritysten n��k��kulmasta. Tutkielmassa pohditaan lis��ksi yritysten omaa roolia osana kaksinkertaisen verotuksen tilanteita. Juridista kaksinkertaista verotusta muodostuu, kun sama yhti�� maksaa samasta tulosta veroa kahteen valtioon. Teoriaosio etenee verotusoikeuden m����ritt��misest�� kaksinkertaisen verotuksen muodostumiseen. Kaksinkertainen verotus pyrit����n poistamaan poistomenetelm��ll��, joka on Suomessa tavallisesti hyvitysmenetelm��. Ongelmatilanne muodostuu, kun kaksinkertaista verotusta ei saada tehokkaasti poistettua tulon l��hdevaltion ja yhti��n asuinvaltion v��lill��. T��m�� tutkielma on laadullinen tutkimus ja tutkimusmenetelm��n�� on k��ytetty teemahaastattelua. Tutkimustulokset osoittavat, ett�� kvalifikaatiokonflikteissa juridisen kaksinkertaisen verotuksen ongelmatilanne esiintyy p����s����nt��isesti rojalti-liiketulo -luokitteluristiriidan seurauksena. Kiinte��n toimipaikan kvalifikaatio on harvinaisempi ongelmatilanne. Hyvitysmenetelm��n suurimmat ongelmat esiintyv��t puolestaan p����liikkeen tappiollisen liiketoiminnan johdosta. Toinen hyvitysmenetelm��n ongelmakohta esiintyy, kun l��hdeveron alainen tulo huomioidaan bruttotulosta, mutta ulkomaisen tulon hyvitys suoritetaan nettotulosta. Haastatteluiden perusteella on selv����, ett�� yritysten oma rooli kaksinkertaisen verotuksen ehk��isyss�� on merkitt��v��. Yrityksen omia vaikutusmahdollisuuksia ovat muun muassa riitt��v�� ennakointikyky, dokumentointi, selke��t sopimukset ja asiantuntijuus.

Physical access for persons with disabilities

For persons with disabilities, the activities that able-bodied people take for granted can be major, often insurmountable challenges. Attempting to enter a restaurant for lunch with friends can result in lengthy and adversarial litigation if the facility is not accessible to a person with a disability or other mobility impairment. This litigation would be initiated after the individual was effectively refused service; a refusal based on hislher personal physical characteristics. If a shopping mall is not equipped with "access amenities", then the disabled person may be excluded from shopping there and thus exercising consumer freedom. If workplaces are not equipped to accommodate the access needs of persons with disabilities, then those people are effectively barred from gainful employment there. If a municipal goveniment building is inaccessible to disabled persons, then they may be excluded from participating in council meetings. These are all activities that the majority of the population enjoys as a matter of course, in that they represent the functions of a free citizen in a free society. If a person is excluded from such activities because of some personal characteristic, then that person is subjected to differential or discr~minatory treatment. The guarantees provided in Canadian feden! and provincial rights legislation, are such that people are not to be discriminated againsL Where buildings and facilities othen\iise open to the public are not accessible for persens with disabilities, then those people are being discriminated against. To challenge these discriminatory practices, individuals initiate complaints through the administrative justice system. To address the extent to which this is a problem, many sources were consulted. Constitutional lawyers, tribunal members, advocates for the disabled and land use planners were interviewed. Case law and legislation were reviewed. Literature on citizenship theory, dispute resolution and dispute avoidance was compiled and assessed. And, the field of land use planning was analyzed (drawing on the WTiter's educational and experiential background) as a possible alternative method for effecting systemic access for persons with disabilities. The conclusion of this study is that there does exist a proactive method for assuring access, a method that can apply the systemic remedy needed to deal with this problem. The current method, which is an adversarial and piecemeal complaint process, has proven ineffective in remedying this discrimination problem~ Failure to provide an appropriate remedy means that persons with disabilities will not enjoy the degree of citizen status enjoyed by the able-bodied. This is the current circumstance, and since equity is the aim of rights legislation, and since such legislative and administrative frameworks have failed in that purpose, then an alternative method is necessary. An alternative model is the one in which land use planning is based. It has conflict avoidance and conflict minimization as underpinnings. And, most importantly, land use planning is already a proyen method of combatting discrimination.

Clopton Charter

Translation of Clopton Charter Let those who are present and those in future know that I Robert de Clopton gave and granted to my son, William, one yardland which is part of the Clopton estate / manorial demesne with all its appurtenances in exchange for his homage and service , and that I have confirmed it with this charter . The yardland in question is that which he once held as heriot / heritable property . [I have given and granted it to him] to be held and kept by him and his heirs freely and undisputedly as a holding granted in return for services and as hereditable property from me and my heirs. For this he has to pay an annual rent of twelve silver pennies, in two installments per year: six on the Feast Day of St. Michael and six on the Feast Day of St. Mary in March , on the income that belongs to me and to my heirs, without neglecting income from elsewhere; together with all goods and privileges attached to the aformentioned land in the form of fields and pastures and everything which belongs to said yardland. And I, Robert, and all my heirs shall warrant all this aforementioned yardland together with all its appurtenances to said William and his heirs against all other claims in perpetuity . However, in order that this gift and grant of mine may remain firm and immovable, I have validated this charter with my seal in the presence of [the following] witnesses: the knights Sir William of Ludinton [and] Sir Robert of Valle. William of Edricheston, William of Waleford, Robert of Sidesam, Richard of Ludinton, Nicholas the scribe , and others.

Aspects of spatial and habitat ecology of multiple Anopheles species (Diptera: Culicidae): malaria vectors in the highlands and foothills of Ecuador

The resurgence of malaria in highland regions of Africa, Oceania and recently in South America underlines the importance of the study of the ecology of highland mosquito vectors of malaria. Since the incidence of malaria is limited by the distribution of its vectors, the purpose of this PhD thesis was to examine aspects of the ecology of Anopheles mosquitoes in the Andes of Ecuador, South America. A historical literature and archival data review (Chapter 2) indicated that Anopheles pseudopunctipennis transmitted malaria in highland valleys of Ecuador prior to 1950, although it was eliminated through habitat removal and the use of chemical insecticides. Other anopheline species were previously limited to low-altitude regions, except in a few unconfirmed cases. A thorough larval collection effort (n=438 attempted collection sites) in all road-accessible parts of Ecuador except for the lowland Amazon basin was undertaken between 2008 - 2010 (Chapter 3). Larvae were identified morphologically and using molecular techniques (mitochondrial COl gene), and distribution maps indicated that all five species collected (Anopheles albimanus, An. pseudopunctipennis, Anopheles punctimacula, Anopheles oswaldoi s.l. and Anopheles eiseni) were more widespread throughout highland regions than previously recorded during the 1940s, with higher maximum altitudes for all except An. pseudopunctipennis (1541 m, 1930 m, 1906 m, 1233 m and 1873 m, respectively). During larval collections, to characterize species-specific larval habitat, a variety of abiotic and biotic habitat parameters were measured and compared between species-present and species-absent sites using chi-square tests and stepwise binary logistic regression analyses (Chapter 4). An. albimanus was significantly associated with permanent pools with sand substrates and An. pseudopunctipennis with gravel and boulder substrates. Both species were significantly associated with floating cyanobacterial mats and warmer temperatures, which may limit their presence in cooler highland regions. Anopheles punctimacula was collected more often than expected from algae-free, shaded pools with higher-than-average calculated dissolved oxygen. Anopheles oswaldoi s.l., the species occurring on the Amazonian side of the Andes, was associated with permanent, anthropogenic habitats such as roadside ditches and ponds. To address the hypothesis that human land use change is responsible for the emergence of multiple highland Anopheles species by creating larval habitat, common land uses in the western Andes were surveyed for standing water and potential larval habitat suitability (Chapter 5). Rivers and road edges provided large amounts of potentially suitable anopheline habitat in the western Andes, while cattle pasture also created potentially suitable habitat in irrigation canals and watering ponds. Other common land uses surveyed (banana farms, sugarcane plantations, mixed tree plantations, and empty lots) were usually established on steep slopes and had very little standing water present. Using distribution and larval habitat data, a GIS-based larval habitat distribution model for the common western species was constructed in ArcGIS v.l 0 (ESRI 2010) using derived data layers from field measurements and other sources (Chapter 6). The additive model predicted 76.4 - 97.9% of the field-observed collection localities of An. albimanus, An. pseudopunctipennis and An. punctimacula, although it could not accurately distinguish between species-absent and speciespresent sites due to its coarse scale. The model predicted distributional expansion and/or shift of one or more anopheline species into the following highland valleys with climate warming: Mira/Chota, Imbabura province, Tumbaco, Pichincha province, Pallatanga and Sibambe, Chimborazo province, and Yungilla, Azuay province. These valleys may serve as targeted sites of future monitoring to prevent highland epidemics of malaria. The human perceptions of malaria and mosquitoes in relation to land management practices were assessed through an interview-based survey (n=262) in both highlands and lowlands, of male and female land owners and managers of five property types (Chapter 7). Although respondents had a strong understanding of where the disease occurs in their own country and of the basic relationship among standing water, mosquitoes and malaria, about half of respondents in potential risk areas denied the current possibility of malaria infection on their own property. As well, about half of respondents with potential anopheline larval habitat did not report its presence, likely due to a highly specific definition of suitable mosquito habitat. Most respondents who are considered at risk of malaria currently use at least one type of mosquito bite prevention, most commonly bed nets. In conclusion, this interdisciplinary thesis examines the occurrence of Anopheles species in the lowland transition area and highlands in Ecuador, from a historic, geographic, ecological and sociological perspective.

Opportunities for Youth Program Fonds, Brock University, 1971, 1975

The Opportunities for Youth Program was a summer employment program for students funded by the federal government. During the summer of 1971, Brock University received funding from this program to hire 56 students to work on five different projects. These projects included a Land Use Survey and Data Mapping, a Guide to the Research Resources for the Niagara Region, work with the Association for Retarded Children, Co-ordinated Community Services for Youth, and Student Direction and Co-ordination of the Program.

Larval habitat associations with human land uses, roads, rivers, and land cover for Anopheles albimanus, A. pseudopunctipennis, and A. punctimacula (Diptera: Culicidae) in coastal and highland Ecuador

Larval habitat for three highland Anopheles species: Anopheles albimanus Wiedemann, Anopheles pseudopunctipennis Theobald, and Anopheles punctimacula Dyar and Knab was related to human land uses, rivers, roads, and remotely sensed land cover classifications in the western Ecuadorian Andes. Of the five commonly observed human land uses, cattle pasture (n = 30) provided potentially suitable habitat for A. punctimacula and A. albimanus in less than 14% of sites, and was related in a principal components analysis (PCA) to the presence of macrophyte vegetation, greater surface area, clarity, and algae cover. Empty lots (n = 30) were related in the PCA to incident sunlight and provided potential habitat for A. pseudopunctipennis and A. albimanus in less than 14% of sites. The other land uses surveyed (banana, sugarcane, and mixed tree plantations; n = 28, 21, 25, respectively) provided very little standing water that could potentially be used for larval habitat. River edges and eddies (n = 41) were associated with greater clarity, depth, temperature, and algae cover, which provide potentially suitable habitat for A. albimanus in 58% of sites and A. pseudopunctipennis in 29% of sites. Road-associated water bodies (n = 38) provided potential habitat for A. punctimacula in 44% of sites and A. albimanus in 26% of sites surveyed. Species collection localities were compared to land cover classifications using Geographic Information Systems software. All three mosquito species were associated more often with the category ���closed/open broadleaved evergreen and/or semi-deciduous forests��� than expected (P ��� 0.01 in all cases), given such a habitat���s abundance. This study provides evidence that specific human land uses create habitat for potential malaria vectors in highland regions of the Andes.

John N. Jackson papers, 1960-1989, n.d.

John N. Jackson was born in Nottingham, England in 1926. He developed a passion for landforms and geography from his father, a high school math and science teacher who had studied geology. During the Second World War, he served in the British Navy. He received his BA from the University of Birmingham, and a PhD from the University of Manchester. After spending a year as a visiting professor at the University of British Columbia, he was hired in 1965 as the founding head of the Geography Department at Brock University. He taught at Brock for more than 25 years, immersing himself in the geography and history of the Niagara area. He became particularly interested in the history of the Welland Canals. He authored 20 books on various topics, including land use in Niagara, the history of St. Catharines, the Welland Canal, and railways in the Niagara Peninsula. He died in 2010, at the age of 84.

Preservation of Agricultural Lands Society (PALS) fonds, 1954-2015, n.d.

Preservation of Agricultural Lands Society [PALS] held its first meeting at Brock University on June 21, 1976. Its first executive consisted of Robert Hoover, Rick Teather, Debbie Kehler and Bill Forster. Some objectives of the organization were "to seek the preservation of valuable farm areas from non-agricultural expansion and development and to foster development and support of federal, provinicial and local policy which will provide a secure financial future for farming." Gracia Janes and John Bacher are some of the organizations' well known advocates. The organization was active in raising public awareness of the issues surrounding encroaching development onto existing agricultural lands. The organization is still active today [2016] in educating the public and attempting to influence governments at all levels to protect valuable agricultural lands.

Impact des polluants agricoles sur la g��n��tique des populations d���une esp��ce sentinelle : le ouaouaron (Rana catesbeiana)

L���expansion agricole ne cesse d���agir sur la perte d���habitats essentiels et n��cessaires au d��veloppement des esp��ces. Bien que plusieurs esp��ces r��ussissent �� survivre dans ces habitats peu ad��quats, la persistance et la sant�� de plusieurs populations semblent compromises par l���utilisation souvent intensive de polluants chimiques agricoles et de fertilisants. Cette ��tude a pour but de d��terminer l���impact des contaminants et de l�����cologie du paysage sur la diversit�� g��n��tique des populations de ouaouarons retrouv��es en milieu agricole. Notre hypoth��se de d��part stipule qu���une exposition chronique aux polluants agricoles induira des diff��rences g��n��tiques au niveau des populations expos��es. Le bassin versant de la rivi��re Yamaska a ��t�� d��sign�� comme site d�����tude puisqu���il fait partie de la r��gion agricole la plus importante du Qu��bec et parce qu���on y retrouve un gradient d���utilisation des terres pour l���agriculture (faible, moyen, ��lev��). Le ouaouaron a ��t�� choisi �� titre de mod��le biologique puisque ses caract��ristiques physiologiques et ��cologiques en font une esp��ce sentinelle capable de rendre compte de l�����tat de sant�� global des ��cosyst��mes. La caract��risation g��n��tique des populations a ��t�� effectu��e �� partir de marqueurs d���AFLP (Amplified Fragment Length Polymorphism). Les r��sultats montrent que la diversit�� g��n��tique est li��e �� la colonisation �� partir de l���embouchure de la rivi��re Yamaska et que quelques populations sont g��n��tiquement diff��renci��es. De plus, nous avons d��montr�� une relation positive entre le nombre de locus polymorphes et l���atrazine, l���indice de contamination et le m��tolachlore et la concentration en azote ainsi qu���entre l���h��t��rozygotie attendue et la concentration en phosphate.

The Impact of Recycling on the Long-Run Stock of Trees

Interest in recycling of forest products has grown in recent years, one of the goals being to conserve the stock of trees or possibly increase it to compensate for positive externalities generated by the forest and neglected by the market. This paper explores the issue as to whether recycling is an appropriate measure to attain such a goal. We do this by considering the problem of the private owner of an area of land, who, acting as a price taker, decides how to allocate his land over time between forestry and some other use, and at what age to harvest the forest area chosen. Once the forest is cut, he makes a new land allocation decision and replants. He does so indefinitely, in a Faustmann-like framework. The wood from the harvest is transformed into a final product which is partly recycled into a substitute for the virgin wood, so that past output affects the current price. We show that in such a context, increasing the rate of recycling will result in less area being devoted to forestry. It will also have the effect of increasing the harvest age of the forest, as long as the planting cost is positive. The net effect on the flow of virgin wood being harvested to supply the market will as a result be ambiguous. The main point however is that recycling will result in a smaller, not a larger, stock of trees in the long run. It would therefore be best to resort to other means if the goal is to increase the stock of trees.

La diminution des espaces ouverts en Isra��l depuis 1948 : exploration et discussion des facteurs contribuant �� un probl��me de soci��t��

Le pr��sent m��moire se penche sur la diminution des espaces ouverts en Isra��l, un probl��me environnemental consid��r�� comme l���un des plus importants par les organisations environnementales de ce pays. La situation est particuli��rement pr��occupante depuis le d��but des ann��es 1990 alors que la superficie occup��e par ces espaces s���est r��duite significativement. Les craintes li��es �� cette ��volution se sont traduites par l���implantation de plans nationaux d���am��nagement visant express��ment �� concentrer le d��veloppement futur du pays au sein des quatre principales r��gions m��tropolitaines (Tel-Aviv, J��rusalem, Ha��fa, Beer-Sheva) de mani��re �� pr��server de fa��on optimale les espaces ouverts restants. Plusieurs facteurs sont responsables de cette perte d���espaces ouverts. Ainsi, l���un des objectifs cet ouvrage consiste �� identifier ces facteurs de m��me qu����� analyser dans quelle mesure ils ont influ��. Par ailleurs, ce m��moire fait le point sur l�����volution de la superficie des espaces ouverts au fil des ann��es. Finalement, le dernier chapitre aborde les enjeux actuels quant �� la conservation des espaces ouverts isra��liens et souligne quelques solutions propos��es afin d���accro��tre leur protection pour le futur. Afin de dresser un portrait complet de la situation, la p��riode ��tudi��e s�����tend de 1948, ann��e de fondation de l�����tat d���Isra��l, �� 2010.