Analytic free-form lens design in 3D: coupling three ray sets using two lens surfaces

The two-dimensional analytic optics design method presented in a previous paper [Opt. Express 20, 5576–5585 (2012)] is extended in this work to the three-dimensional case, enabling the coupling of three ray sets with two free-form lens surfaces. Fermat’s principle is used to deduce additional sets of functional differential equations which make it possible to calculate the lens surfaces. Ray tracing simulations demonstrate the excellent imaging performance of the resulting free-form lenses described by more than 100 coefficients.

Perfect imaging of three object points with only two analytic lens surfaces in two dimensions

In this work, a new two-dimensional analytic optics design method is presented that enables the coupling of three ray sets with two lens profiles. This method is particularly promising for optical systems designed for wide field of view and with clearly separated optical surfaces. However, this coupling can only be achieved if different ray sets will use different portions of the second lens profile. Based on a very basic example of a single thick lens, the Simultaneous Multiple Surfaces design method in two dimensions (SMS2D) will help to provide a better understanding of the practical implications on the design process by an increased lens thickness and a wider field of view. Fermat?s principle is used to deduce a set of functional differential equations fully describing the entire optical system. The transformation of these functional differential equations into an algebraic linear system of equations allows the successive calculation of the Taylor series coefficients up to an arbitrary order. The evaluation of the solution space reveals the wide range of possible lens configurations covered by this analytic design method. Ray tracing analysis for calculated 20th order Taylor polynomials demonstrate excellent performance and the versatility of this new analytical optics design concept.

Analytic free-form lens design for imaging applications with high aspect ratio

A new three-dimensional analytic optics design method is presented that enables the coupling of three ray sets with only two free-form lens surfaces. Closely related to the Simultaneous Multiple Surface method in three dimensions (SMS3D), it is derived directly from Fermat?s principle, leading to multiple sets of functional differential equations. The general solution of these equations makes it possible to calculate more than 80 coefficients for each implicit surface function. Ray tracing simulations of these free-form lenses demonstrate superior imaging performance for applications with high aspect ratio, compared to conventional rotational symmetric systems.

Aplanatic thin TIR lens

Aplanatic designs present great interest in the optics field since they are free from spherical aberration and linear coma at the axial direction. Nevertheless nowadays it cannot be found on literature any thin aplanatic design based on a lens. This work presents the first aplanatic thin lens (in this case a dome-shaped faceted TIR lens performing light collimation), designed for LED illumination applications. This device, due to its TIR structure (defined as an anomalous microstructure as we will see) presents good color-mixing properties. We will show this by means of raytrace simulations, as well as high optical efficiency.

SMS-based optimization strategy for ultra-compact SWIR telephoto lens design

A new optical design strategy for rotational aspheres using very few parameters is presented. It consists of using the SMS method to design the aspheres embedded in a system with additional simpler surfaces (such as spheres, parabolas or other conics) and optimizing the free-parameters. Although the SMS surfaces are designed using only meridian rays, skew rays have proven to be well controlled within the optimization. In the end, the SMS surfaces are expanded using Forbes series and then a second optimization process is carried out with these SMS surfaces as a starting point. The method has been applied to a telephoto lens design in the SWIR band, achieving ultra-compact designs with an excellent performance.

Silica final lens performance in laser fusion facilities: HiPER and LIFE

Silica final lens performance in laser fusion facilities: HiPER and LIFE

Analytic free-form lens design for tracking integration in concentrating photovoltaics

In this work the concept of tracking integration in concentrating photovoltaics (CPV) is revisited and developed further. With respect to conventional CPV, tracking integration eliminates the clear separation between stationary units of optics and solar cells, and external solar trackers. This approach is capable of further increasing the concentration ratio and makes high concentrating photovoltaics (> 500x) available for single-axis tracker installations. The reduced external solar tracking effort enables possibly cheaper and more compact installations. Our proposed optical system uses two laterally moving plano-convex lenses to achieve high concentration over a wide angular range of ±24°. The lateral movement allows to combine both steering and concentration of the incident direct sun light. Given the specific symmetry conditions of the underlying optical design problem, rotational symmetric lenses are not ideal for this application. For this type of design problems, a new free-form optics design method presented in previous papers perfectly matches the symmetry. It is derived directly from Fermat's principle, leading to sets of functional differential equations allowing the successive calculation of the Taylor series coeficients of each implicit surface function up to very high orders. For optical systems designed for wide field of view and with clearly separated optical surfaces, this new analytic design method has potential application in both fields of nonimaging and imaging optics.

Free-form optics for Fresnel-lens-based photovoltaic concentrators

The Concentrated Photovoltaics (CPV) promise relies upon the use of high-efficiency triple-junction solar cells (with proven efficiencies of over 44%) and upon high-performance optics that allow for high concentration concurrent with relaxed manufacturing tolerances (all key elements for low-cost mass production). Additionally, uniform illumination is highly desirable for efficiency and reliability reasons. All of these features have to be achieved with inexpensive optics containing only a few (in general no more than 2) optical elements. In this paper we show that the degrees of freedom using free-forms allow the introduction of multiple functionalities required for CPV with just 2 optical elements, one of which is a Fresnel lens.

Silica final lens performance in laser fusion facilities: HiPER and LIFE

Nowadays, the projects LIFE (Laser Inertial Fusion Energy) in USA and HiPER (High Power Laser Energy Research) in Europe are the most advanced ones to demonstrate laser fusion energy viability. One of the main points of concern to properly achieve ignition is the performance of the final optics (lenses) under the severe irradiation conditions that take place in fusion facilities. In this paper, we calculate the radiation fluxes and doses as well as the radiation-induced temperature enhancement and colour centre formation in final lenses assuming realistic geometrical configurations for HiPER and LIFE. On these bases, the mechanical stresses generated by the established temperature gradients are evaluated showing that from a mechanical point of view lenses only fulfil specifications if ions resulting from the imploding target are mitigated. The absorption coefficient of the lenses is calculated during reactor startup and steady-state operation. The obtained results reveal the necessity of new solutions to tackle ignition problems during the startup process for HiPER. Finally, we evaluate the effect of temperature gradients on focal length changes and lens surface deformations. In summary, we discuss the capabilities and weak points of silica lenses and propose alternatives to overcome predictable problems

A novel scanning lens instrument for evaluating Fresnel lens performance: equipment development and initial results

A system dedicated to the optical transmittance characterization of Fresnel lenses has been developed at NREL, in collaboration with the UPM. The system quantifies the optical efficiency of the lens by generating a performance map. The shape of the focused spot may also be analyzed to understand change in the lens performance. The primary instrument components (lasers and CCD detector) have been characterized to confirm their capability for performing optical transmittance measurements. Measurements performed on SoG and PMMA lenses subject to a variety of indoor conditions (e.g., UV and damp heat) identified differences in the optical efficiency of the evaluated lenses, demonstrating the ability of the Scanning Lens Instrument (SLI) to distinguish between the aged lenses.

9-fold Fresnel-Kohler concentrator with Fresnel lens of variable focal point

Non-uniform irradiance patterns over Multi-Junction Cells gives rise to power losses, especially when considering spectral irradiance distributions over different junctions. Thermal effects on Silicone-on-Glass lenses affect spectral irradiance distributions. A new Photovoltaic Concentrator (CPV), formed by nine optical channels, each one with a Köhler configuration, has been designed to overcome these effects at high concentrations for a large acceptance angle. A Fresnel Lens with a Variable Focal Point is proposed to prevent optical crosstalk in multichannel systems. When integrated into the concentrator, improves the acceptance angle. These designs are designed to fulfill the expected requirements of four junction CPV systems.

Flooding through the lens of mobile phone activity

Natural disasters affect hundreds of millions of people worldwide every year. Emergency response efforts depend upon the availability of timely information, such as information concerning the movements of affected populations. The analysis of aggregated and anonymized Call Detail Records (CDR) captured from the mobile phone infrastructure provides new possibilities to characterize human behavior during critical events. In this work, we investigate the viability of using CDR data combined with other sources of information to characterize the floods that occurred in Tabasco, Mexico in 2009. An impact map has been reconstructed using Landsat-7 images to identify the floods. Within this frame, the underlying communication activity signals in the CDR data have been analyzed and compared against rainfall levels extracted from data of the NASA-TRMM project. The variations in the number of active phones connected to each cell tower reveal abnormal activity patterns in the most affected locations during and after the floods that could be used as signatures of the floods - both in terms of infrastructure impact assessment and population information awareness. The epresentativeness of the analysis has been assessed using census data and civil protection records. While a more extensive validation is required, these early results suggest high potential in using cell tower activity information to improve early warning and emergency management mechanisms.

Flooding through the lens of mobile phone activity

Natural disasters affect hundreds of millions of people worldwide every year. Emergency response efforts depend upon the availability of timely information, such as information concerning the movements of affected populations. The analysis of aggregated and anonymized Call Detail Records (CDR) captured from the mobile phone infrastructure provides new possibilities to characterize human behavior during critical events. In this work, we investigate the viability of using CDR data combined with other sources of information to characterize the floods that occurred in Tabasco, Mexico in 2009. An impact map has been reconstructed using Landsat-7 images to identify the floods. Within this frame, the underlying communication activity signals in the CDR data have been analyzed and compared against rainfall levels extracted from data of the NASA-TRMM project. The variations in the number of active phones connected to each cell tower reveal abnormal activity patterns in the most affected locations during and after the floods that could be used as signatures of the floods - both in terms of infrastructure impact assessment and population information awareness. The representativeness of the analysis has been assessed using census data and civil protection records. While a more extensive validation is required, these early results suggest high potential in using cell tower activity information to improve early warning and emergency management mechanisms.

Requirement for the c-Maf transcription factor in crystallin gene regulation and lens development

The vertebrate lens is a tissue composed of terminally differentiated fiber cells and anterior lens epithelial cells. The abundant, preferential expression of the soluble proteins called crystallins creates a transparent, refractive index gradient in the lens. Several transcription factors such as Pax6, Sox1, and L-Maf have been shown to regulate lens development. Here we show that mice lacking the transcription factor c-Maf are microphthalmic secondary to defective lens formation, specifically from the failure of posterior lens fiber elongation. The marked impairment of crystallin gene expression observed is likely explained by the ability of c-Maf to transactivate the crystallin gene promoter. Thus, c-Maf is required for the differentiation of the vertebrate lens.

Conservation of fibroblast growth factor function in lens regeneration

In urodele amphibians, lens induction during development and regeneration occurs through different pathways. During development, the lens is induced from the mutual interaction of the ectoderm and the optic vesicle, whereas after lentectomy the lens is regenerated through the transdifferentiation of the iris-pigmented epithelial cells. Given the known role of fibroblast growth factors (FGFs) during lens development, we examined whether or not the expression and the effects of exogenous FGF during urodele lens regeneration were conserved. In this paper, we describe expression of FGF-1 and its receptors, FGFR-2 (KGFR and bek variants) and FGFR-3, in newts during lens regeneration. Expression of these genes was readily observed in the dedifferentiating pigmented epithelial cells, and the levels of expression were high in the lens epithelium and the differentiating fibers and lower in the retina. These patterns of expression implied involvement of FGFs in lens regeneration. To further elucidate this function, we examined the effects of exogenous FGF-1 and FGF-4 during lens regeneration. FGF-1 or FGF-4 treatment in lentectomized eyes resulted in the induction of abnormalities reminiscent to the ones induced during lens development in transgenic mice. Effects included transformation of epithelial cells to fiber cells, double lens regeneration, and lenses with abnormal polarity. These results establish that FGF molecules are key factors in fiber differentiation, polarity, and morphogenesis of the lens during regeneration even though the regenerating lens is induced by a different mechanism than in lens development. In this sense, FGF function in lens regeneration and development should be regarded as conserved. Such conservation should help elucidate the mechanisms of lens regeneration in urodeles and its absence in higher vertebrates.