(Table 1) Stable carbon and nitrogen isotopic ratios of potential prey species of bearded seals (Erignathus barbatus), Svalbard

Changing patterns of sea-ice distribution and extent have measurable effects on polar marine systems. Beyond the obvious impacts of key-habitat loss, it is unclear how such changes will influence ice-associated marine mammals in part because of the logistical difficulties of studying foraging behaviour or other aspects of the ecology of large, mobile animals at sea during the polar winter. This study investigated the diet of pregnant bearded seals (Erignathus barbatus) during three spring breeding periods (2005, 2006 and 2007) with markedly contrasting ice conditions in Svalbard using stable isotopes (d13C and d15N) measured in whiskers collected from their newborn pups. The d15N values in the whiskers of individual seals ranged from 11.95 to 17.45 per mil, spanning almost 2 full trophic levels. Some seals were clearly dietary specialists, despite the species being characterised overall as a generalist predator. This may buffer bearded seal populations from the changes in prey distributions lower in the marine food web which seems to accompany continued changes in temperature and ice cover. Comparisons with isotopic signatures of known prey, suggested that benthic gastropods and decapods were the most common prey. Bayesian isotopic mixing models indicated that diet varied considerably among years. In the year with most fast-ice (2005), the seals had the greatest proportion of pelagic fish and lowest benthic invertebrate content, and during the year with the least ice (2006), the seals ate more benthic invertebrates and less pelagic fish. This suggests that the seals fed further offshore in years with greater ice cover, but moved in to the fjords when ice-cover was minimal, giving them access to different types of prey. Long-term trends of sea ice decline, earlier ice melt, and increased water temperatures in the Arctic are likely to have ecosystem-wide effects, including impacts on the forage bases of pagophilic seals.

Late Quateranry dinoflagellate cysts of ODP Site 202-1233

The late Quaternary organic-walled dinoflagellate cyst record of Site 1233 (41°S, offshore Chile) was studied with a ?200 year resolution spanning the last 25,000 years. The study provides the first continuous record of sub-recent and recent dinoflagellate cysts in the Southeast (SE) Pacific. Major changes in the composition of the cyst association, cyst concentration and morphology of Operculodinium centrocarpum reflect changes in sea surface temperature (SST), sea surface salinity (SSS), palaeoproductivity and upwelling intensity. These changes can be associated with latitudinal shifts of the circumpolar frontal systems. The high cyst concentration, high Brigantedinium spp. abundances, low species diversity and the occurrence of certain cold water species are supportive for a 7-10° equatorward shift of the Antarctic Circumpolar Current (ACC) during the coldest phase of the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) between 25 and 21.1 cal ka BP. Deglacial warming initiated at ~18.6 cal ka BP. Termination I (18.6-11.1 cal ka BP) is interrupted by an unstable period of extreme seasonality, rather than a cooling event, between 14.4 and 13.2 cal ka BP, synchronous with the Antarctic Cold Reversal (ACR). The Holocene Maximum is observed between 11.6 and 9.8 cal ka BP and is typified by the most southward position of the northern margin of the ACC. A cooling phase occurred during the early Holocene (until ~7 cal ka BP) and during the last ~0.8 ka. Our data indicates that the SE Pacific (41°S) climate has been influenced over the whole record by changes in the Southern Hemisphere (SH) high-latitudes, while during the mid to late Holocene, also a tropical forcing mechanism was involved, including the El Niño Southern Oscillation and the variable Hadley cell intensity. Furthermore, this study showed a relationship between the variable morphology of the spines/processes of O. centrocarpum and the combined variation of sea surface salinity and temperature (SSS/SST-ratio).

Occurrence and Range-through database of functional diversity of marine ecosystems after the Late Permian mass extinction event

The Late Permian mass extinction event about 252 million years ago was the most severe biotic crisis of the past 500 million years and occurred during an episode of global warming. The loss of around two-thirds of marine genera is thought to have had substantial ecological effects, but the overall impacts on the functioning of marine ecosystems and the pattern of marine recovery are uncertain. Here we analyse the fossil occurrences of all known benthic marine invertebrate genera from the Permian and Triassic periods, and assign each to a functional group based on their inferred lifestyle. We show that despite the selective extinction of 62-74% of these genera, all but one functional group persisted through the crisis, indicating that there was no significant loss of functional diversity at the global scale. In addition, only one new mode of life originated in the extinction aftermath. We suggest that Early Triassic marine ecosystems were not as ecologically depauperate as widely assumed. Functional diversity was, however, reduced in particular regions and habitats, such as tropical reefs; at these smaller scales, recovery varied spatially and temporally, probably driven by migration of surviving groups. We find that marine ecosystems did not return to their pre-extinction state, and by the Middle Triassic greater functional evenness is recorded, resulting from the radiation of previously subordinate groups such as motile, epifaunal grazers.

The California current predator diet database: synthesis of common forage species

Characterization of the diets of upper-trophic predators is a key ingredient in management including the development of ecosystem-based fishery management plans, conservation efforts for top predators, and ecological and economic modeling of predator prey interactions. The California Current Predator Diet Database (CCPDD) synthesizes data from published records of predator food habits over the past century. The database includes diet information for 100+ upper-trophic level predator species, based on over 200 published citations from the California Current region of the Pacific Ocean, ranging from Baja, Mexico to Vancouver Island, Canada. We include diet data for all predators that consume forage species: seabirds, cetaceans, pinnipeds, bony and cartilaginous fishes, and a predatory invertebrate; data represent seven discrete geographic regions within the CCS (Canada, WA, OR, CA-n, CA-c, CA-s, Mexico). The database is organized around predator-prey links that represent an occurrence of a predator eating a prey or group of prey items. Here we present synthesized data for the occurrence of 32 forage species (see Table 2 in the affiliated paper) in the diet of pelagic predators (currently submitted to Ecological Informatics). Future versions of the shared-data will include diet information for all prey items consumed, not just the forage species of interest.

(Fig. 3) Sepia officinalis standard metobolic rate and seawater pH (NBS) during experiments, 2008

Ocean acidification and associated changes in seawater carbonate chemistry negatively influence calcification processes and depress metabolism in many calcifying marine invertebrates. We present data on the cephalopod mollusc Sepia officinalis, an invertebrate that is capable of not only maintaining calcification, but also growth rates and metabolism when exposed to elevated partial pressures of carbon dioxide (pCO2). During a 6 wk period, juvenile S. officinalis maintained calcification under ~4000 and ~6000 ppm CO2, and grew at the same rate with the same gross growth efficiency as did control animals. They gained approximately 4% body mass daily and increased the mass of their calcified cuttlebone by over 500%. We conclude that active cephalopods possess a certain level of pre-adaptation to long-term increments in carbon dioxide levels. Our general understanding of the mechanistic processes that limit calcification must improve before we can begin to predict what effects future ocean acidification will have on calcifying marine invertebrates.

Rates of seropositivity for Toxoplasma gondii antibodies in polar bears and marine mammals around Svalbard

Little is known about the prevalence of the parasite Toxoplasma gondii in the arctic marine food chain of Svalbard, Norway. In this study, plasma samples were analyzed for T. gondii antibodies using a direct agglutination test. Antibody prevalence was 45.6% among polar bears (Ursus maritimus), 18.7% among ringed seals (Pusa hispida) and 66.7% among adult bearded seals (Erignathus barbatus) from Svalbard, but no sign of antibodies were found in bearded seal pups, harbour seals (Phoca vitulina), white whales (Delphinapterus leucas) or narwhals (Monodon monoceros) from the same area. Prevalence was significantly higher in male polar bears (52.3%) compared with females (39.3%), likely due to dietary differences between the sexes. Compared to an earlier study, T. gondii prevalence in polar bears has doubled in the past decade. Consistently, an earlier study on ringed seals did not detect T. gondii. The high recent prevalence in polar bears, ringed seals and bearded seals could be caused by an increase in the number or survivorship of oocysts being transported via the North Atlantic Current to Svalbard from southern latitudes. Warmer water temperatures have led to influxes of temperate marine invertebrate filter-feeders that could be vectors for oocysts and warmer water is also likely to favour higher survivorship of oocycts. However, a more diverse than normal array of migratory birds in the Archipelago recently, as well as a marked increase in cruise-ship and other human traffic are also potential sources of T. gondii.

Silicate in marine sediments from the Emerland Basin, North Atlantic

A method was developed to measure porosity and dissolved interstitial silicate at millimeter intervals or less in a sediment core. In cores from Emerald Basin (Scotian Shelf), interstitial concentrations near the sediment surface did not drop rapidly to bottom-water concentrations as measured in bottle casts (28 µM) but remained as high as 166 µM in the upper 0.5 mm of sediment High rates of benthic silicate release were measured which could not be accounted for by interstitial concentration gradients or by ventilation of macro-invertebrate burrows. The silicate discontinuity observed between the sediments and water column suggests that a diffusive sublayer exists in a zone of viscous flow above the sediment surface. This is possible only if a surface reaction is primarily responsible for silicate release. By assuming a linear concentration gradient across this diffusive sublayer, the silicate release rates were used to estimate the thickness of the sublayer to be about 2 mm.

Ocean acidification impacts on sperm mitochondrial membrane potential bring sperm swimming behaviour near its tipping point

Broadcast spawning marine invertebrates are susceptible to environmental stressors such as climate change, as their reproduction depends on the successful meeting and fertilization of gametes in the water column. Under near-future scenarios of ocean acidification, the swimming behaviour of marine invertebrate sperm is altered. We tested whether this was due to changes in sperm mitochondrial activity by investigating the effects of ocean acidification on sperm metabolism and swimming behaviour in the sea urchin Centrostephanus rodgersii. We used a fluorescent molecular probe (JC-1) and flow cytometry to visualize mitochondrial activity (measured as change in mitochondrial membrane potential, MMP). Sperm MMP was significantly reduced in delta pH -0.3 (35% reduction) and delta pH -0.5 (48% reduction) treatments, whereas sperm swimming behaviour was less sensitive with only slight changes (up to 11% decrease) observed overall. There was significant inter-individual variability in responses of sperm swimming behaviour and MMP to acidified seawater. We suggest it is likely that sperm exposed to these changes in pH are close to their tipping point in terms of physiological tolerance to acidity. Importantly, substantial inter-individual variation in responses of sperm swimming to ocean acidification may increase the scope for selection of resilient phenotypes, which, if heritable, could provide a basis for adaptation to future ocean acidification.

(Table 1) Mercury concentrations and carbon and nitrogen isotopic ratios in 14 marine species from West Greenland sampled between 2003-2004

Total mercury (THg), methylmercury (MeHg) and stable isotopes of nitrogen (d15N) and carbon (d13C) were measured in three invertebrate, five fish, three seabird and three marine mammal species of central West Greenland to investigate trophic transfer of mercury in this Arctic marine food web. The food web magnification factor (FWMF) estimated as the slope of the regression between the natural logarithm of THg or MeHg concentrations (mg/kg dw) and tissue d15N (per mil) was estimated to 0.183 (SE = 0.052) for THg and 0.339 (SE = 0.075) for MeHg. The FWMFs were not only comparable with those reported for other Arctic marine food webs but also with quite different food webs such as freshwater lakes in the sub-Arctic, East Africa and Papua New Guinea. This suggests similar mechanisms of mercury assimilation and isotopic (d15N) discrimination among a broad range of aquatic taxa and underlines the possibility of broad ecosystem comparisons using the combined contaminant and stable isotope approach.

Community structure and biodiversity in marine benthic communities during experiments, 2011

A mesocosm experiment was conducted to quantify the effects of reduced pH and elevated temperature on an intact marine invertebrate community. Standardised faunal communities, collected from the extreme low intertidal zone using artificial substrate units, were exposed to one of eight nominal treatments (four pH levels: 8.0, 7.7, 7.3 and 6.7, crossed with two temperature levels: 12 and 16°C). After 60 days exposure communities showed significant changes in structure and lower diversity in response to reduced pH. The response to temperature was more complex. At higher pH levels (8.0 and 7.7) elevated temperature treatments contained higher species abundances and diversity than the lower temperature treatments. In contrast, at lower pH levels (7.3 and 6.7), elevated temperature treatments had lower species abundances and diversity than lower temperature treatments. The species losses responsible for these changes in community structure and diversity were not randomly distributed across the different phyla examined. Molluscs showed the greatest reduction in abundance and diversity in response to low pH and elevated temperature, whilst annelid abundance and diversity was mostly unaffected by low pH and was higher at the elevated temperature. The arthropod response was between these two extremes with moderately reduced abundance and diversity at low pH and elevated temperature. Nematode abundance increased in response to low pH and elevated temperature, probably due to the reduction of ecological constraints, such as predation and competition, caused by a decrease in macrofaunal abundance. This community-based mesocosm study supports previous suggestions, based on observations of direct physiological impacts, that ocean acidification induced changes in marine biodiversity will be driven by differential vulnerability within and between different taxonomical groups. This study also illustrates the importance of considering indirect effects that occur within multispecies assemblages when attempting to predict the consequences of ocean acidification and global warming on marine communities.

Ecological assessment data of the marine flora and fauna of Point Lookout in 2014 (PLEA)

In 2014, UniDive (The University of Queensland Underwater Club) conducted an ecological assessment of the Point Lookout Dive sites for comparison with similar surveys conducted in 2001. Involvement in the project was voluntary. Members of UniDive who were marine experts conducted training for other club members who had no, or limited, experience in identifying marine organisms and mapping habitats. Since the 2001 detailed baseline study, no similar seasonal survey has been conducted. The 2014 data is particularly important given that numerous changes have taken place in relation to the management of, and potential impacts on, these reef sites. In 2009, Moreton Bay Marine Park was re-zoned, and Flat Rock was converted to a marine national park zone (Green zone) with no fishing or anchoring. In 2012, four permanent moorings were installed at Flat Rock. Additionally, the entire area was exposed to the potential effects of the 2011 and 2013 Queensland floods, including flood plumes which carried large quantities of sediment into Moreton Bay and surrounding waters. The population of South East Queensland has increased from 2.49 million in 2001 to 3.18 million in 2011 (BITRE, 2013). This rapidly expanding coastal population has increased the frequency and intensity of both commercial and recreational activities around Point Lookout dive sites (EPA 2008). Methodology used for the PLEA project was based on the 2001 survey protocols, Reef Check Australia protocols and Coral Watch methods. This hybrid methodology was used to monitor substrate and benthos, invertebrates, fish, and reef health impacts. Additional analyses were conducted with georeferenced photo transects. The PLEA marine surveys were conducted over six weekends in 2014 totaling 535 dives and 376 hours underwater. Two training weekends (February and March) were attended by 44 divers, whilst biological surveys were conducted on seasonal weekends (February, May, July and October). Three reefs were surveyed, with two semi-permanent transects at Flat Rock, two at Shag Rock, and one at Manta Ray Bommie. Each transect was sampled once every survey weekend, with the transect tapes deployed at a depth of 10 m below chart datum. Fish populations were assessed using a visual census along 3 x 20 m transects. Each transect was 5 m wide (2.5 m either side of the transect tape), 5 m high and 20 m in length. Fish families and species were chosen that are commonly targeted by recreational or commercial fishers, or targeted by aquarium collectors, and that were easily identified by their body shape. Rare or otherwise unusual species were also recorded. Target invertebrate populations were assessed using visual census along 3 x 20 m transects. Each transect was 5 m wide (2.5 m either side of the transect tape) and 20 m in length. The diver surveying invertebrates conducted a 'U-shaped' search pattern, covering 2.5 m on either side of the transect tape. Target impacts were assessed using a visual census along the 3 x 20 m transects. Each transect was 5 m wide (2.5 m either side of the transect tape) and 20 m in length. The transect was surveyed via a 'U-shaped' search pattern, covering 2.5 m on either side of the transect tape. Substrate surveys were conducted using the point sampling method, enabling percentage cover of substrate types and benthic organisms to be calculated. The substrate or benthos under the transect line was identified at 0.5m intervals, with a 5m gap between each of the three 20m segments. Categories recorded included various growth forms of hard and soft coral, key species/growth forms of algae, other living organisms (i.e. sponges), recently killed coral, and, non-living substrate types (i.e. bare rock, sand, rubble, silt/clay).

Consumers mediate the effects of experimental ocean acidification and warming on primary producers

It is well known that ocean acidification can have profound impacts on marine organisms. However, we know little about the direct and indirect effects of ocean acidification and also how these effects interact with other features of environmental change such as warming and declining consumer pressure. In this study, we tested whether the presence of consumers (invertebrate mesograzers) influenced the interactive effects of ocean acidification and warming on benthic microalgae in a seagrass community mesocosm experiment. Net effects of acidification and warming on benthic microalgal biomass and production, as assessed by analysis of variance, were relatively weak regardless of grazer presence. However, partitioning these net effects into direct and indirect effects using structural equation modeling revealed several strong relationships. In the absence of grazers, benthic microalgae were negatively and indirectly affected by sediment-associated microalgal grazers and macroalgal shading, but directly and positively affected by acidification and warming. Combining indirect and direct effects yielded no or weak net effects. In the presence of grazers, almost all direct and indirect climate effects were nonsignificant. Our analyses highlight that (i) indirect effects of climate change may be at least as strong as direct effects, (ii) grazers are crucial in mediating these effects, and (iii) effects of ocean acidification may be apparent only through indirect effects and in combination with other variables (e.g., warming). These findings highlight the importance of experimental designs and statistical analyses that allow us to separate and quantify the direct and indirect effects of multiple climate variables on natural communities.

Interactions among chronic and acute impacts on coral recruits: the importance of size-escape thresholds

Newly settled recruits typically suffer high mortality from disturbances, but rapid growth reduces their mortality once size-escape thresholds are attained. Ocean acidification (OA) reduces the growth of recruiting benthic invertebrates, yet no direct effects on survivorship have been demonstrated. We tested whether the reduced growth of coral recruits caused by OA would increase their mortality by prolonging their vulnerability to an acute disturbance: fish herbivory on surrounding algal turf. After two months' growth in ambient or elevated CO2 levels, the linear extension and calcification of coral (Acropora millepora) recruits decreased as CO2 partial pressure (pCO2) increased. When recruits were subjected to incidental fish grazing, their mortality was inversely size dependent. However, we also found an additive effect of pCO2 such that recruit mortality was higher under elevated pCO2 irrespective of size. Compared to ambient conditions, coral recruits needed to double their size at the highest pCO2 to escape incidental grazing mortality. This general trend was observed with three groups of predators (blenny, surgeonfish, and parrotfish), although the magnitude of the fish treatment varied among species. Our study demonstrates the importance of size-escape thresholds in early recruit survival and how OA can shift these thresholds, potentially intensifying population bottlenecks in benthic invertebrate recruitment.