The diurnal variation in stratospheric ozone from the MACC reanalysis, the ERA-Interim reanalysis, WACCM and Earth observations: characteristics and intercomparison

In this study we compare the diurnal variation in stratospheric ozone derived from free-running simulations of the Whole Atmosphere Community Climate Model (WACCM) and from reanalysis data of the atmospheric service MACC (Monitoring Atmospheric Composition and Climate) which both use a similar stratospheric chemistry module. We find good agreement between WACCM and the MACC reanalysis for the diurnal ozone variation in the high-latitude summer stratosphere based on photochemistry. In addition, we consult the ozone data product of the ERA-Interim reanalysis. The ERA-Interim reanalysis ozone system with its long-term ozone parametrization can not capture these diurnal variations in the upper stratosphere that are due to photochemistry. The good dynamics representations, however, reflects well dynamically induced ozone variations in the lower stratosphere. For the high-latitude winter stratosphere we describe a novel feature of diurnal variation in ozone where changes of up to 46.6% (3.3 ppmv) occur in monthly mean data. For this effect good agreement between the ERA-Interim reanalysis and the MACC reanalysis suggest quite similar diurnal advection processes of ozone. The free-running WACCM model seriously underestimates the role of diurnal advection processes at the polar vortex at the two tested resolutions. The intercomparison of the MACC reanalysis and the ERA-Interim reanalysis demonstrates how global reanalyses can benefit from a chemical representation held by a chemical transport model. The MACC reanalysis provides an unprecedented description of the dynamics and photochemistry of the diurnal variation of stratospheric ozone which is of high interest for ozone trend analysis and research on atmospheric tides. We confirm the diurnal variation in ozone at 5 hPa by observations of the Superconducting Submillimeter-Wave Limb-Emission Sounder (SMILES) experiment and selected sites of the Network for Detection of Atmospheric Composition Change (NDACC). The latter give valuable insight even to diurnal variation of ozone in the polar winter stratosphere.

Growth at moderately elevated temperature alters the physiological response of the photosynthetic apparatus to heat stress in pea (Pisum sativum L.) leaves

The impact of heat stress on the functioning of the photosynthetic apparatus was examined in pea (Pisum sativum L.) plants grown at control (25 °C; 25 °C-plants) or moderately elevated temperature (35 °C; 35 °C-plants). In both types of plants net photosynthesis (Pn) decreased with increasing leaf temperature (LT) and was more than 80% reduced at 45 °C as compared to 25 °C. In the 25 °C-plants, LTs higher than 40 °C could result in a complete suppression of Pn. Short-term acclimation to heat stress did not alter the temperature response of Pn. Chlorophyll a fluorescence measurements revealed that photosynthetic electron transport (PET) started to decrease when LT increased above 35 °C and that growth at 35 °C improved the thermal stability of the thylakoid membranes. In the 25 °C-plants, but not in the 35 °C-plants, the maximum quantum yield of the photosystem II primary photochemistry, as judged by measuring the Fv/Fm ratio, decreased significantly at LTs higher than 38 °C. A post-illumination heat-induced reduction of the plastoquinone pool was observed in the 25 °C-plants, but not in the 35 °C-plants. Inhibition of Pn by heat stress correlated with a reduction of the activation state of ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase (Rubisco). Western-blot analysis of Rubisco activase showed that heat stress resulted in a redistribution of activase polypeptides from the soluble to the insoluble fraction of extracts. Heat-dependent inhibition of Pn and PET could be reduced by increasing the intercellular CO2 concentration, but much more effectively so in the 35 °C-plants than in the 25 °C-plants. The 35 °C-plants recovered more efficiently from heat-dependent inhibition of Pn than the 25 °C-plants. The results show that growth at moderately high temperature hardly diminished inhibition of Pn by heat stress that originated from a reversible heat-dependent reduction of the Rubisco activation state. However, by improving the thermal stability of the thylakoid membranes it allowed the photosynthetic apparatus to preserve its functional potential at high LTs, thus minimizing the after-effects of heat stress.

Supramolecular Organization of Dye Molecules in Zeolite L Channels: Synthesis, Properties, and Composite Materials

Sequential insertion of different dyes into the 1D channels of zeolite L (ZL) leads to supramolecular sandwich structures and allows the formation of sophisticated antenna composites for light harvesting, transport, and trapping. The synthesis and properties of dye molecules, host materials, composites, and composites embedded in polymer matrices, including two- and three-color antenna systems, are described. Perylene diimide (PDI) dyes are an important class of chromophores and are of great interest for the synthesis of artificial antenna systems. They are especially well suited to advancing our understanding of the structure–transport relationship in ZL because their core fits tightly through the 12-ring channel opening. The substituents at both ends of the PDIs can be varied to a large extent without influencing their electronic absorption and fluorescence spectra. The intercalation/insertion of 17 PDIs, 2 terrylenes, and 1 quaterrylene into ZL are compared and their interactions with the inner surface of the ZL nanochannels discussed. ZL crystals of about 500 nm in size have been used because they meet the criteria that must be respected for the preparation of antenna composites for light harvesting, transport, and trapping. The photostability of dyes is considerably improved by inserting them into the ZL channels because the guests are protected by being confined. Plugging the channel entrances, so that the guests cannot escape into the environment is a prerequisite for achieving long-term stability of composites embedded in an organic matrix. Successful methods to achieve this goal are described. Finally, the embedding of dye–ZL composites in polymer matrices, while maintaining optical transparency, is reported. These results facilitate the rational design of advanced dye–zeolite composite materials and provide powerful tools for further developing and understanding artificial antenna systems, which are among the most fascinating subjects of current photochemistry and photophysics.

Effect of Nontronite Smectite Clay on the Chemical Evolution of Several Organic Molecules under Simulated Martian Surface Ultraviolet Radiation Conditions

Most of the phyllosilicates detected at the surface of Mars today are probably remnants of ancient environments that sustained long-term bodies of liquid water at the surface or subsurface and were possibly favorable for the emergence of life. Consequently, phyllosilicates have become the main mineral target in the search for organics on Mars. But are phyllosilicates efficient at preserving organic molecules under current environmental conditions at the surface of Mars? We monitored the qualitative and quantitative evolutions of glycine, urea, and adenine in interaction with the Fe3+-smectite clay nontronite, one of the most abundant phyllosilicates present at the surface of Mars, under simulated martian surface ultraviolet light (190-400 nm), mean temperature (218 +/- 2 K), and pressure (6 +/- 1 mbar) in a laboratory simulation setup. We tested organic-rich samples that were representative of the evaporation of a small, warm pond of liquid water containing a high concentration of organics. For each molecule, we observed how the nontronite influences its quantum efficiency of photodecomposition and the nature of its solid evolution products. The results reveal a pronounced photoprotective effect of nontronite on the evolution of glycine and adenine; their efficiencies of photodecomposition were reduced by a factor of 5 when mixed at a concentration of 2.6x10(-2) mol of molecules per gram of nontronite. Moreover, when the amount of nontronite in the sample of glycine was increased by a factor of 2, the gain of photoprotection was multiplied by a factor of 5. This indicates that the photoprotection provided by the nontronite is not a purely mechanical shielding effect but is also due to stabilizing interactions. No new evolution product was firmly identified, but the results obtained with urea suggest a particular reactivity in the presence of nontronite, leading to an increase of its dissociation rate. Key Words: Martian surface-Organic chemistry-Photochemistry-Astrochemistry-Nontronite-Phyllosilicates. Astrobiology 15, 221-237.

Homology Cloning, Heterologous Expression and Characterization of a New Channelrhodopsin

Channelrhodopsins are phototaxis receptors in the plasma membranes of motile unicellular algae. They function as light-gated cation channels and this channel activity has been exploited to trigger action potentials in neurons with light to control neural circuits (“optogenetics"). Four channelrhodopsins were identified in two algal species, Chlamydomonas reinhardtii and Volvox carteri, with known genome sequences; each species contains 2 channelrhodopsins, one absorbing at longer wavelengths and one at shorter wavelengths, named CrChR1 and CrChR2, respectively. Our goals are to expand knowledge of channelrhodopsin mechanisms and also to identify new channelrhodopsins from various algal species with improved properties for optogenetic use. For these aims we are targeting algae from extreme environments to establish the natural diversity of their properties. We cloned a new channelrhodopsin from the psychrophilic (cold-loving) alga, Chlamydomonas augustae, with degenerate primers based on the 4 known homologs. The new protein is 48% and 52% identical to CrChR1 and CrChR2, respectively. We expressed the channelrhodopsin in HEK293 cells and measured light-induced currents to assess their kinetics and action spectrum. Based on the primary structure, kinetics of light-induced photocurrents in HEK293 cells, and action spectrum maximum of 520 nm near that of the two previously found CrChR1, we named the new channelrhodopsin CaChR1. The properties of robust channel activity at physiological pH, fast on-and-off kinetics, and greatly red-shifted action spectrum maximum from that of CrChR2, make CaChR1 advantageous as an optogenetic tool. To know this new channelrhodopsin better, we expressed His-tagged CaChR1 in Pichia pastoris and the yield is about 6 mg/L. The purified His-tagged CaChR1 exhibited an absorption spectrum identical to the action spectrum of CaChR1-generated photocurrents. The future work will be measurement of the photocycles of CaChR1 by flash photolysis, crystallization of CaChR1 for the structure and mutagenesis of CaChR1 to find the critical amino acids accounting for red-shifted spectra, slow inactivation and rapid on-and-off kinetics. Seven new channelrhodopsins including CaChR1 from different algal species have been cloned in our lab at this time, bringing the total known to 13. The work of cloning of these new channelrhodopsins along with the expression of CaChR1 was published in Photochemistry and Photobiology in January 2012

Ocean acidification decreases the light-use efficiency in an Antarctic diatom under dynamic but not constant light, link to supplementary data

There is increasing evidence that different light intensities strongly modulate the effects of ocean acidification (OA) on marine phytoplankton. The aim of the present study was to investigate interactive effects of OA and dynamic light, mimicking natural mixing regimes. The Antarctic diatom Chaetoceros debilis was grown under two pCO2 (390 and 1000 latm) and light conditions (constant and dynamic), the latter yielding the same integrated irradiance over the day. To characterize interactive effects between treatments, growth, elemental composition, primary production and photophysiology were investigated. Dynamic light reduced growth and strongly altered the effects of OA on primary production, being unaffected by elevated pCO2 under constant light, yet significantly reduced under dynamic light. Interactive effects between OA and light were also observed for Chl production and particulate organic carbon (POC) quotas. Response patterns can be explained by changes in the cellular energetic balance. While the energy transfer efficiency from photochemistry to biomass production (Phi_e,C) was not affected by OA under constant light, it was drastically reduced under dynamic light. Contrasting responses under different light conditions need to be considered when making predictions regarding a more stratified and acidified future ocean.

Open Ocean and coastal phytoplankton communities of of Western Antarctic Peninsula and Drake Passage waters

Photophysiological processes as well as uptake characteristics of iron and inorganic carbon were studied in inshore phytoplankton assemblages of the Western Antarctic Peninsula (WAP) and offshore assemblages of the Drake Passage. Chlorophyll a concentrations and primary productivity decreased from in- to offshore waters. The inverse relationship between low maximum quantum yields of photochemistry in PSII (Fv/Fm) and large sizes of functional absorption cross sections (sigma PSII) in offshore communities indicated iron-limitation. Congruently, the negative correlation between Fv/Fm values and iron uptake rates across our sampling locations suggest an overall better iron uptake capacity in iron-limited pelagic phytoplankton communities. Highest iron uptake capacities could be related to relative abundances of the haptophyte Phaeocystis antarctica. As chlorophyll a-specific concentrations of humic-like substances were similarly high in offshore and inshore stations, we suggest humic-like substances may play an important role in iron chemistry in both coastal and pelagic phytoplankton assemblages. Regarding inorganic carbon uptake kinetics, the measured maximum short-term uptake rates (Vmax(CO2)) and apparent half-saturation constants (K1/2(CO2)) did not differ between offshore and inshore phytoplankton. Moreover, Vmax(CO2) and K1/2(CO2) did not exhibit any CO2-dependent trend over the natural pCO2 range from 237 to 507 µatm. K1/2(CO2) strongly varied among the sampled phytoplankton communities, ranging between 3.5 and 35.3 µmol/L CO2. While in many of the sampled phytoplankton communities, the operation of carbon-concentrating mechanisms (CCMs) was indicated by low K1/2(CO2) values relative to ambient CO2 concentrations, some coastal sites exhibited higher values, suggesting down-regulated CCMs. Overall, our results demonstrate a complex interplay between photophysiological processes, iron and carbon uptake of phytoplankton communities of the WAP and the Drake Passage.

Characteristics and aldehyde concentrations of diamond dust events near Barrow, Alaska

Diamond dust (DD) refers to tiny ice crystals that form frequently in the Polar troposphere under clear sky conditions. They provide surfaces for chemical reactions and scatter light. We have measured the specific surface area (SSA) of DD at Barrow in March-April 2009. We have also measured its chemical composition in mineral and organic ions, dissolved organic carbon (DOC), aldehydes, H2O2, and the absorption spectra of water-soluble chromophores. Mercury concentrations were also measured in spring 2006, when conditions were similar. The SSA of DD ranges from 79.9 to 223 m**2/kg . The calculated ice surface area in the atmosphere reaches 11000 (±70%) µm**2/cm**3, much higher than the aerosol surface area. However, the impact of DD on the downwelling and upwelling light fluxes in the UV and visible is negligible. The composition of DD is markedly different from that of snow on the surface. Its concentrations in mineral ions are much lower, and its overall composition is acidic. Its concentrations in aldehydes, DOC, H2O2 and mercury are much higher than in surface snows. Our interpretation is that DOC from the oceanic surface microlayer, coming from open leads in the ice off of Barrow, is taken up by DD. Active chemistry in the atmosphere takes place on DD crystal surfaces, explaining its high concentrations in aldehydes and mercury. After deposition, active photochemistry modifies DD composition, as seen from the modifications in its absorption spectra and aldehyde and H2O2 content. This probably leads to the emissions of reactive species to the atmosphere.

Growth, respiration and photophysiology of coral massive Porites spp. in the experiment of Moorea

I tested the hypothesis that high pCO2 (76.6 Pa and 87.2 Pa vs. 42.9 Pa) has no effect on the metabolism of juvenile massive Porites spp. after 11 days at 28 °C and 545 µmol quanta/m**2/s. The response was assessed as aerobic dark respiration, skeletal weight (i.e., calcification), biomass, and chlorophyll fluorescence. Corals were collected from the shallow (3-4 m) back reef of Moorea, French Polynesia (17°28.614'S, 149°48.917'W), and experiments conducted during April and May 2011. An increase in pCO2 to 76.6 Pa had no effect on any dependent variable, but 87.2 Pa pCO2 reduced area-normalized (but not biomass-normalized) respiration 36 %, as well as maximum photochemical efficiency (Fv/Fm) of open RCIIs and effective photochemical efficiency of RCIIs in actinic light (Delta F/F'm ); neither biomass, calcification, nor the energy expenditure coincident with calcification (J/g) was effected. These results do not support the hypothesis that high pCO2 reduces coral calcification through increased metabolic costs and, instead, suggest that high pCO2 causes metabolic depression and photochemical impairment similar to that associated with bleaching. Evidence of a pCO2 threshold between 76.6 and 87.2 Pa for inhibitory effects on respiration and photochemistry deserves further attention as it might signal the presence of unpredictable effects of rising pCO2.

Sea-suface microlayer (SML) and underlying water (ULW) samples focusing on CDOM spectral characteristics during METEOR cruise M91

The coastal upwelling system off the coast of Peru is characterized by high biological activity and a pronounced subsurface oxygen minimum zone, as well as associated emissions of atmospheric trace gases such as N2O, CH4 and CO2. From 3 to 23 December 2012, R/V Meteor (M91) cruise took place in the Peruvian upwelling system between 4.59 and 15.4°S, and 82.0 to 77.5°W. During M91 we investigated the composition of the sea-surface microlayer (SML), the oceanic uppermost boundary directly subject to high solar radiation, often enriched in specific organic compounds of biological origin like chromophoric dissolved organic matter (CDOM) and marine gels. In the SML, the continuous photochemical and microbial recycling of organic matter may strongly influence gas exchange between marine systems and the atmosphere. We analyzed SML and underlying water (ULW) samples at 38 stations focusing on CDOM spectral characteristics as indicator of photochemical and microbial alteration processes. CDOM composition was characterized by spectral slope (S) values and excitation-emission matrix fluorescence (EEMs), which allow us to track changes in molecular weight (MW) of DOM, and to determine potential DOM sources and sinks. Spectral slope S varied between 0.012 to 0.043 1 nm-1 and was quite similar between SML and ULW, with no significant differences between the two compartments. Higher S values were observed in the ULW of the southern stations below 15°S. By EEMs, we identified five fluorescent components (F1-5) of the CDOM pool, of which two had excitation/emission characteristics of amino-acid-like fluorophores (F1, F4) and were highly enriched in the SML, with a median ratio SML : ULW of 1.5 for both fluorophores. In the study region, values for CDOM absorption ranged from 0.07 to 1.47 m-1. CDOM was generally highly concentrated in the SML, with a median enrichment with respect to the ULW of 1.2. CDOM composition and changes in spectral slope properties suggested a local microbial release of DOM directly in the SML as a response to light exposure in this extreme environment. In a conceptual model of the sources and modifications of optically active DOM in the SML and underlying seawater (ULW), we describe processes we think may take place (Fig. 1); the production of CDOM of higher MW by microbial release through growth, exudation and lysis in the euphotic zone, includes the identified fluorophores (F1, F2, F3, F4, F5). Specific amino-acid-like fluorophores (F1, F4) accumulate in the SML with respect to the ULW, as photochemistry may enhance microbial CDOM release by (a) photoprotection mechanisms and (b) cell-lysis processes. Microbial and photochemical degradation are potential sinks of the amino-acid-like fluorophores (F1, F4), and potential sources of reworked and more refractory humic-like components (F2, F3, F5). In the highly productive upwelling region along the Peruvian coast, the interplay of microbial and photochemical processes controls the enrichment of amino-acid-like CDOM in the SML. We discuss potential implications for air-sea gas exchange in this area.

Solar UV irradiances modulate effects of ocean acidification on the Coccolithophorid Emiliania huxleyi

Emiliania huxleyi, the most abundant coccolithophorid in the oceans, is naturally exposed to solar UV radiation (UVR, 280-400 nm) in addition to photosynthetically active radiation (PAR). We investigated the physiological responses of E. huxleyi to the present day and elevated CO2 (390 vs 1000 µatm; with pH(NBS) 8.20 vs 7.86) under indoor constant PAR and fluctuating solar radiation with or without UVR. Enrichment of CO2 stimulated the production rate of particulate organic carbon (POC) under constant PAR, but led to unchanged POC production under incident fluctuating solar radiation. The production rates of particulate inorganic carbon (PIC) as well as PIC/POC ratios were reduced under the elevated CO2, ocean acidification (OA) condition, regardless of PAR levels, and the presence of UVR. However, moderate levels of UVR increased PIC production rates and PIC/POC ratios. OA treatment interacted with UVR to influence the alga's physiological performance, leading to reduced specific growth rate in the presence of UVA (315-400 nm) and decreased quantum yield, along with enhanced nonphotochemical quenching, with addition of UVB (280-315 nm). The results clearly indicate that UV radiation needs to be invoked as a key stressor when considering the impacts of ocean acidification on E. huxleyi.

New particle formation at the coastal Antarctic site Neumayer in 2012 and 2014

We measured condensation particle (CP) concentrations and particle size distributions at the coastal Antarctic station Neumayer (70°39'S, 8°15'W) during two summer campaigns (from 20 January to 26 March 2012 and 1 February to 30 April 2014) and during polar night between 12 August and 27 September 2014 in the particle diameter (Dp) range from 2.94 nm to 60.4 nm (2012) and from 6.26 nm to 212.9 nm (2014). During both summer campaigns we identified all in all 44 new particle formation (NPF) events. From 10 NPF events, particle growth rates could be determined to be around 0.90±0.46 nm/h (mean ± std; range: 0.4 nm/h to 1.9 nm/h). With the exception of one case, particle growth was generally restricted to the nucleation mode (Dp < 25 nm) and the duration of NPF events was typically around 6.0±1.5 h (mean ± std; range: 4 h to 9 h). Thus in the main, particles did not grow up to sizes required for acting as cloud condensation nuclei. NPF during summer usually occurred in the afternoon in coherence with local photochemistry. During winter, two NPF events could be detected, though showing no ascertainable particle growth. A simple estimation indicated that apart from sulfuric acid, the derived growth rates required other low volatile precursor vapours.