Review of trust and machine ethics research: towards a bio-inspired computational model of ethical trust (CMET)

Recent advances in the fields of robotics, cyborg development, moral psychology, trust, multi agent-based systems and socionics have raised the need for a better understanding of ethics, moral reasoning, judgment and decision-making within the system of man and machines. Here we seek to understand key research questions concerning the interplay of ethical trust at the individual level and the social moral norms at the collective end. We review salient works in the fields of trust and machine ethics research, underscore the importance and the need for a deeper understanding of ethical trust at the individual level and the development of collective social moral norms. Drawing upon the recent findings from neural sciences on mirror-neuron system (MNS) and social cognition, we present a bio-inspired Computational Model of Ethical Trust (CMET) to allow investigations of the interplay of ethical trust and social moral norms.

Ethical trust and social moral norms simulation : a bio-inspired agent-based modelling approach

The understanding of the micro-macro link is an urgent need in the study of social systems. The complex adaptive nature of social systems adds to the challenges of understanding social interactions and system feedback and presents substantial scope and potential for extending the frontiers of computer-based research tools such as simulations and agent-based technologies. In this project, we seek to understand key research questions concerning the interplay of ethical trust at the individual level and the development of collective social moral norms as representative sample of the bigger micro-macro link of social systems. We outline our computational model of ethical trust (CMET) informed by research findings from trust, machine ethics and neural science. Guided by the CMET architecture, we discuss key implementation ideas for the simulations of ethical trust and social moral norms.

Interplay of ethical trust and social moral norms : environment modelling and computational mechanisms in agent-based social simulation

In many agent-based models theoretical and computational mechanisms are needed for model abstraction and design. However, it can be challenging to arrive at the appropriate mechanisms and models. This research on the interplay of ethical trust and social moral norms addresses that challenge via an analytical framework on the spread of moral norms, the modelling of social environment and the selection of spread mechanisms as applied to agent-based social simulation. We describe the mechanism alignment mapping, two forms of interaction modelling between the social environment and agents, and the results obtained from the simulation of our computational model. These results provide an insight into how the agent-based paradigm can be applied as a technique of investigation for normative moral processes in computational social sciences.

Ethical considerations in synthesising research : whose representations?

Research syntheses play a powerful role in shaping further research, practice, policy and public perceptions. Accordingly, the ethical issues associated with how perspectives of different groups are included or censored in a research synthesis report must be paid adequate attention. Any research synthesis is inherently influenced by subjectivities associated with multiple layers of interpretation, selection and representation. In framing a research synthesis, it is vital that synthesists take into account: multiple interests and influences of different stakeholders; potential impact of the synthesis on different stakeholders; synthesists’ own multiple and shifting identities within the synthesis; synthesists’ methodological positioning within the synthesis; status accorded to authors and participants of the primary research studies included in the synthesis; influences of funding agencies; politics of who/what gets published; and biases introduced through common strategies for retrieving primary research studies. I have raised strategic questions and issues to structure and inform critical decision-making throughout a synthesis process. I hope this article will stimulate debate and discussion on various ethical considerations associated with the process of synthesising research.

Orphan DNA: Indigenous samples, ethical biovalue and postcolonial science in Australia

Thousands of blood samples taken from Australia’s indigenous people lie in institutional freezers of the global North, the legacy of a half-century of scientific research. Since those collections were assembled, standards of ethical research practice have changed dramatically, leaving some samples in a state of dormancy. While some European and American collections are still actively used for genetic research, this practice is viewed as unethical by most Australian genetic researchers, who have closer relationships with indigenous Australians and postcolonial politics. For collections to be used ethically, they require a ‘guardian’ who has an ongoing and documented relationship with the donors, so that consent to further studies on samples can be negotiated. This affective and bureaucratic network generates ‘ethical biovalue’ such that a research project can satisfy Australian ethical review. I propose in this article that without ethical biovalue, collections become ‘orphan’ DNA, divorced from a guardian and often difficult to trace to their sources. Such samples are both orphaned and functionally sterile, unable to produce data, scientific articles, knowledge or prestige. This article draws on an ethnographic study of genetic researchers who are working in indigenous communities across Australia. I present tales of researchers’ efforts to generate ethical biovalue and their fears for succession; fears that extend to threats to destroy samples rather than see them orphaned, or worse, fall into the wrong hands. Within these material and affective  networks, indigenous DNA morphs from biological sample to sacred object to political time bomb. 

Genetic research in Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander communities : continuing the conversation

Genetics is at the forefront of medical research, but it is rarely used in Indigenous health research projects. This discussion paper is the outcome of the first ever national discussion of the conduct of genetic research in Indigenous communities in Australia convened by the Lowitja Institute in 2010. It reviews the ethical issues relevant to genetic research in an Australian Indigenous context; existing guidelines for genetic research in indigenous communities internationally; and literature on genetic literacy in Indigenous contexts. Finally, the discussion paper presents a summary of the productive and challenging conversations at the round table.

A shareholder’s contractual right to a dividend and a company’s oppressive conduct in withholding dividend payments: Sumiseki Materials Co Ltd v Wambo Coal Pty Ltd

Traditionally, a shareholder’s expectation of receiving a dividend has been limited by the discretion the board of directors has to recommend the appropriate amount of payment as a dividend. As a general rule, shareholders will only be entitled to a dividend after the dividend is declared (normally, at the general meeting), or when the actual date arrives for the dividend to be paid. Because courts were traditionally reluctant to interfere with the internal management of companies, the remedies available to shareholders to compel a company to declare a dividend were very limited. As a result, if the directors have decided to withhold dividend payment, courts will only make an order requiring dividends to be paid under very exceptional circumstances. In this article, the authors discuss the case of Sumiseki Materials Co Ltd v Wambo Coal Pty Ltd [2013] NSWSC 235, which is exceptional for the court’s recognition of a shareholder’s contractual right to a dividend. The article analyses the court’s approach, which found that withholding dividend payments was oppressive and unfairly prejudicial conduct of the company. It also discusses the significance of shareh9olders entrenching their rights in a company’s constitution, irrespective of the fact that a company has a statutory right to alter its constitution by way of a special resolution.

Ethical leadership

What is ethical leadership? Have you ever wondered what your ethical responsibilities are as an educational leader in 21st century educational contexts, or where to look for ethical guidance? As teachers in early childhood, primary and secondary schools, vocational education and higher education contexts, we all share the complexities of managing relationships effectively, respectfully and fairly. The Victorian Institute of Teaching reminds us that as teachers that 'we hold a unique position of trust and influence, which we recognise in our relationships with students, parents (caregivers and guardians), colleagues and the community.' Along with our unique position, educational contexts in contemporary times are complex, there are competing and contradictory agendas that we need to contend with, ever increasing and changing accountabilities, and yet as teachers we are expected to always be inclusive, equitable and fair decision makers. So, how can we be ethical leaders?

Ethical challenges associated with providing continence care in residential aged care facilities : findings from a grounded theory study

A person-centred approach to care in residential aged care facilities should uphold residents’ rights to independence, choice, decision-making, participation, and control over their lifestyle. Little is known about how nurses and personal care assistants working in these facilities uphold these ideals when assisting residents maintain continence and manage incontinence. The overall aim of the study was to develop a grounded theory to describe and explain how Australian residents of aged care facilities have their continence care needs determined, delivered and communicated. This paper presents and discusses a subset of the findings about the ethical challenges nurses and personal care assistants encountered whilst providing continence care. Grounded theory methodology was used for in-depth interviews with 18 nurses and personal care assistants who had experience of providing, supervising or assessing continence care in any Australian residential aged care facility, and to analyse 88 hours of field observations in two facilities. Data generation and analysis occurred simultaneously using open coding, theoretical coding, and selective coding, until data were saturated. While addressing the day-to-day needs of residents who needed help to maintain continence and/or manage incontinence, nurses and personal care assistants struggled to enable residents to exercise choice and autonomy. The main factor that contributed to this problem was that the fact that nurses and personal care assistants had to respond to multiple, competing, and conflicting expectations about residents’ care needs. This situation was compounded by workforce constraints, inadequate information about residents’ care needs, and an unpredictable work environment. Providing continence care accentuated the ethical tensions associated with caregiving. Nurses’ and personal care assistants’ responses were mainly characterised by highly protective behaviours towards residents. Underlying structural factors that hinder high quality continence care to residents of aged care facilities should be urgently addressed.