Silicon Promotes Exodermal Casparian Band Formation in Si-Accumulating and Si-Excluding Species by Forming Phenol Complexes

We studied the effect of Silicon (Si) on Casparian band (CB) development, chemical composition of the exodermal CB and Si deposition across the root in the Si accumulators rice and maize and the Si non-accumulator onion. Plants were cultivated in nutrient solution with and without Si supply. The CB development was determined in stained root cross-sections. The outer part of the roots containing the exodermis was isolated after enzymatic treatment. The exodermal suberin was transesterified with MeOH/BF3 and the chemical composition was measured using gas chromatography-mass spectroscopy (GC-MS) and flame ionization detector (GC-FID). Laser ablation-inductively coupled plasma-mass spectroscopy (LA-ICP-MS) was used to determine the Si deposition across root cross sections. Si promoted CB formation in the roots of Si-accumulator and Si non-accumulator species. The exodermal suberin was decreased in rice and maize due to decreased amounts of aromatic suberin fractions. Si did not affect the concentration of lignin and lignin-like polymers in the outer part of rice, maize and onion roots. The highest Si depositions were found in the tissues containing CB. These data along with literature were used to suggest a mechanism how Si promotes the CB development by forming complexes with phenols.

Effects of silicon treatment and inoculation with Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. vasinfectum on cellular defences in root tissues of two cotton cultivars

BACKGROUND AND AIMS: Silicon has been shown to enhance the resistance of plants to fungal and bacterial pathogens. Here, the effect of potassium silicate was assessed on two cotton (Gossypium hirsutum) cultivars subsequently inoculated with Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. vasinfectum (Fov). Sicot 189 is moderately resistant whilst Sicot F-1 is the second most resistant commercial cultivar presently available in Australia. METHODS: Transmission and light microscopy were used to compare cellular modifications in root cells after these different treatments. The accumulation of phenolic compounds and lignin was measured. KEY RESULTS: Cellular alterations including the deposition of electron-dense material, degradation of fungal hyphae and occlusion of endodermal cells were more rapidly induced and more intense in endodermal and vascular regions of Sicot F-1 plants supplied with potassium silicate followed by inoculation with Fov than in similarly treated Sicot 189 plants or in silicate-treated plants of either cultivar not inoculated with Fov. Significantly more phenolic compounds were present at 7 d post-infection (dpi) in root extracts of Sicot F-1 plants treated with potassium silicate followed by inoculation with Fov compared with plants from all other treatments. The lignin concentration at 3 dpi in root material from Sicot F-1 treated with potassium silicate and inoculated with Fov was significantly higher than that from water-treated and inoculated plants. CONCLUSIONS: This study demonstrates that silicon treatment can affect cellular defence responses in cotton roots subsequently inoculated with Fov, particularly in Sicot F-1, a cultivar with greater inherent resistance to this pathogen. This suggests that silicon may interact with or initiate defence pathways faster in this cultivar than in the less resistant cultivar.

Analysis methods for meso- and macroporous silicon etching baths

Analysis methods for electrochemical etching baths consisting of various concentrations of hydrofluoric acid (HF) and an additional organic surface wetting agent are presented. These electrolytes are used for the formation of meso- and macroporous silicon. Monitoring the etching bath composition requires at least one method each for the determination of the HF concentration and the organic content of the bath. However, it is a precondition that the analysis equipment withstands the aggressive HF. Titration and a fluoride ion-selective electrode are used for the determination of the HF and a cuvette test method for the analysis of the organic content, respectively. The most suitable analysis method is identified depending on the components in the electrolyte with the focus on capability of resistance against the aggressive HF.

Contactless Spectral-Dependent Measurement of Bulk Lifetime and Surface Recombination Velocity in Silicon Photovoltaic Materials

Charge carrier lifetime measurements in bulk or unfinished photovoltaic (PV) materials allow for a more accurate estimate of power conversion efficiency in completed solar cells. In this work, carrier lifetimes in PV- grade silicon wafers are obtained by way of quasi-steady state photoconductance measurements. These measurements use a contactless RF system coupled with varying narrow spectrum input LEDs, ranging in wavelength from 460 nm to 1030 nm. Spectral dependent lifetime measurements allow for determination of bulk and surface properties of the material, including the intrinsic bulk lifetime and the surface recombination velocity. The effective lifetimes are fit to an analytical physics-based model to determine the desired parameters. Passivated and non-passivated samples are both studied and are shown to have good agreement with the theoretical model.

The development of planar high-K/III-V p-channel MOSFETs for post-silicon CMOS

Conventional Si complementary-metal-oxide-semiconductor (CMOS) scaling is fast approaching its limits. The extension of the logic device roadmap for future enhancements in transistor performance requires non-Si materials and new device architectures. III-V materials, due to their superior electron transport properties, are well poised to replace Si as the channel material beyond the 10nm technology node to mitigate the performance loss of Si transistors from further reductions in supply voltage to minimise power dissipation in logic circuits. However several key challenges, including a high quality dielectric/III-V gate stack, a low-resistance source/drain (S/D) technology, heterointegration onto a Si platform and a viable III-V p-metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect-transistor (MOSFET), need to be addressed before III-Vs can be employed in CMOS. This Thesis specifically addressed the development and demonstration of planar III-V p-MOSFETs, to complement the n-MOSFET, thereby enabling an all III-V CMOS technology to be realised. This work explored the application of InGaAs and InGaSb material systems as the channel, in conjunction with Al2O3/metal gate stacks, for p-MOSFET development based on the buried-channel flatband device architecture. The body of work undertaken comprised material development, process module development and integration into a robust fabrication flow for the demonstration of p-channel devices. The parameter space in the design of the device layer structure, based around the III-V channel/barrier material options of In_x≥0.53Ga_1-xAs/In_0.52Al_0.48As and In_x≥0.1Ga_1-xSb/AlSb, was systematically examined to improve hole channel transport. A mobility of 433 cm²/Vs, the highest room temperature hole mobility of any InGaAs quantum-well channel reported to date, was obtained for the In_0.85Ga_0.15As (2.1% strain) structure. S/D ohmic contacts were developed based on thermally annealed Au/Zn/Au metallisation and validated using transmission line model test structures. The effects of metallisation thickness, diffusion barriers and de-oxidation conditions were examined. Contacts to InGaSb-channel structures were found to be sensitive to de-oxidation conditions. A fabrication process, based on a lithographically-aligned double ohmic patterning approach, was realised for deep submicron gate-to-source/drain gap (L_side) scaling to minimise the access resistance, thereby mitigating the effects of parasitic S/D series resistance on transistor performance. The developed process yielded gaps as small as 20nm. For high-k integration on GaSb, ex-situ ammonium sulphide ((NH₄)₂S) treatments, in the range 1%-22%, for 10min at 295K were systematically explored for improving the electrical properties of the Al₂O₃/GaSb interface. Electrical and physical characterisation indicated the 1% treatment to be most effective with interface trap densities in the range of 4 - 10×10¹²cm^-2eV^-1 in the lower half of the bandgap. An extended study, comprising additional immersion times at each sulphide concentration, was further undertaken to determine the surface roughness and the etching nature of the treatments on GaSb. A number of p-MOSFETs based on III-V-channels with the most promising hole transport and integration of the developed process modules were successfully demonstrated in this work. Although the non-inverted InGaAs-channel devices showed good current modulation and switch-off characteristics, several aspects of performance were non-ideal; depletion-mode operation, modest drive current (I_d,sat=1.14mA/mm), double peaked transconductance (g_m=1.06mS/mm), high subthreshold swing (SS=301mV/dec) and high on-resistance (R_on=845kΩ.μm). Despite demonstrating substantial improvement in the on-state metrics of I_d,sat (11×), g_m (5.5×) and R_on (5.6×), inverted devices did not switch-off. Scaling gate-to-source/drain gap (L_side) from 1μm down to 70nm improved I_d,sat (72.4mA/mm) by a factor of 3.6 and gm (25.8mS/mm) by a factor of 4.1 in inverted InGaAs-channel devices. Well-controlled current modulation and good saturation behaviour was observed for InGaSb-channel devices. In the on-state In_0.3Ga_0.7Sb-channel (I_d,sat=49.4mA/mm, g_m=12.3mS/mm, R_on=31.7kΩ.μm) and In_0.4Ga_0.6Sb-channel (I_d,sat=38mA/mm, g_m=11.9mS/mm, R_on=73.5kΩ.μm) devices outperformed the InGaAs-channel devices. However the devices could not be switched off. These findings indicate that III-V p-MOSFETs based on InGaSb as opposed to InGaAs channels are more suited as the p-channel option for post-Si CMOS.

Deposition of Intrinsic a-Si:H by ECR-CVD to Passivate the Crystalline Silicon Heterointerface in HIT Solar Cells

We have deposited intrinsic amorphous silicon (a-Si:H) using the electron cyclotron resonance (ECR) chemical vapor deposition technique in order to analyze the a-Si:H/c-Si heterointerface and assess the possible application in heterojunction with intrinsic thin layer (HIT) solar cells. Physical characterization of the deposited films shows that the hydrogen content is in the 15-30% range, depending on deposition temperature. The optical bandgap value is always comprised within the range 1.9- 2.2 eV. Minority carrier lifetime measurements performed on the heterostructures reach high values up to 1.3 ms, indicating a well-passivated a-Si:H/c-Si heterointerface for deposition temperatures as low as 100°C. In addition, we prove that the metal-oxide- semiconductor conductance method to obtain interface trap distribution can be applied to the a-Si:H/c-Si heterointerface, since the intrinsic a-Si:H layer behaves as an insulator at low or negative bias. Values for the minimum of D_it as low as 8 × 10^10 cm^2 · eV^-1 were obtained for our samples, pointing to good surface passivation properties of ECR-deposited a-Si:H for HIT solar cell applications.

Limitations of high pressure sputtering for amorphous silicon deposition

Amorphous silicon thin films were deposited using the high pressure sputtering (HPS) technique to study the influence of deposition parameters on film composition, presence of impurities, atomic bonding characteristics and optical properties. An optical emission spectroscopy (OES) system has been used to identify the different species present in the plasma in order to obtain appropriate conditions to deposit high purity films. Composition measurements in agreement with the OES information showed impurities which critically depend on the deposition rate and on the gas pressure. We prove that films deposited at the highest RF power and 3.4 × 10^−2 mbar, exhibit properties as good as the ones of the films deposited by other more standard techniques.

Room temperature photo-response of titanium supersaturated silicon at energies over the bandgap

Silicon samples were implanted with high Ti doses and subsequently processed with the pulsed-laser melting technique. The electronic transport properties in the 15–300 K range and the room temperature spectral photoresponse at energies over the bandgap were measured. Samples with Ti concentration below the insulator-metal (I-M) transition limit showed a progressive reduction of the carrier lifetime in the implanted layer as Ti dose is increased. However, when the Ti concentration exceeded this limit, an extraordinary recovery of the photoresponse was measured. This result supports the theory of intermediate band materials and is of utmost relevance for photovoltaic cells and Si-based detectors.

Análisis teórico del contacto plasma-superficie y sus aplicaciones industriales

Actualmente, la física de plasmas constituye una parte importante de la investigación en física que está siendo desarrollada. Su campo de aplicación varía desde el estudio de plasmas interestelares y cósmicos, como las estrellas, las nebulosas, el medio intergaláctico, etc.; hasta aplicaciones más terrenales como la producción de microchips o los dispositivos de iluminación. Resulta particularmente interesante el estudio del contacto de una superficie metálica con un plasma. Siendo la razón que, la dinámica de la interfase formada entre un plasma imperturbado y una superficie metálica, resulta de gran importancia cuando se trata de estudiar problemas como: la implantación iónica en una oblea de silicio, el grabado por medio de plasmas, la carga de una aeronave cuando atraviesa la ionosfera y la diagnosis de plasmas mediante sondas de Langmuir. El uso de las sondas de Langmuir está extendido a través de multitud de aplicaciones tecnológicas e industriales como método de diagnosis de plasmas. Algunas de estas aplicaciones han sido mencionadas justo en el párrafo anterior. Es más, su uso también es muy popular en la investigación en física de plasmas, por ser una de las pocas técnicas de diagnosis que proporciona información local sobre el plasma. El equipamiento donde es habitualmente implementado varía desde plasmas de laboratorio de baja temperatura hasta plasmas de fusión en dispositivos como tokamaks o stellerators. La geometría más popular de este tipo de sondas es cilíndrica, y la principal magnitud que se usa para diagnosticar el plasma es la corriente recogida por la sonda cuando se encuentra polarizada a un cierto potencial. Existe un interes especial en diagnosticar por medio de la medida de la corriente iónica recogida por la sonda, puesto que produce una perturbación muy pequeña del plasma en comparación con el uso de la corriente electrónica. Dada esta popularidad, no es de extrañar que grandes esfuerzos se hayan realizado en la consecución de un modelo teórico que explique el comportamiento de una sonda de Langmuir inmersa en un plasma. Hay que remontarse a la primera mitad del siglo XX para encontrar las primeras teorías que permiten diagnosticar parámetros del plasma mediante la medida de la corriente iónica recogida por la sonda de Langmuir. Desde entonces, las mejoras en estos modelos y el desarrollo de otros nuevos ha sido una constante en la investigación en física de plasmas. No obstante, todavía no está claro como los iones se aproximan a la superficie de la sonda. Las dos principales, a la par que opuestas, aproximaciones al problema que están ampliamente aceptadas son: la radial y la orbital; siendo el problema que ambas predicen diferentes valores para la corriente iónica. Los experimentos han arrojado resultados de acuerdo con ambas teorías, la radial y la orbital; y lo que es más importante, una transición entre ambos ha sido recientemente observada. La mayoría de los logros conseguidos a la hora de comprender como los iones caen desde el plasma hacia la superficie de la sonda, han sido llevados a cabo en el campo de la dinámica de fluidos o la teoría cinética. Por otra parte, este problema puede ser abordado mediante el uso de simulaciones de partículas. La principal ventaja de las simulaciones de partículas sobre los modelos de fluidos o cinéticos es que proporcionan mucha más información sobre los detalles microscópicos del movimiento de las partículas, además es relativamente fácil introducir interacciones complejas entre las partículas. No obstante, estas ventajas no se obtienen gratuitamente, ya que las simulaciones de partículas requieren grandísimos recursos. Por esta razón, es prácticamente obligatorio el uso de técnicas de procesamiento paralelo en este tipo de simulaciones. El vacío en el conocimiento de las sondas de Langmuir, es el que motiva nuestro trabajo. Nuestra aproximación, y el principal objetivo de este trabajo, ha sido desarrollar una simulación de partículas que nos permita estudiar el problema de una sonda de Langmuir inmersa en un plasma y que está negativamente polarizada con respecto a éste. Dicha simulación nos permitiría estudiar el comportamiento de los iones en los alrededores de una sonda cilíndrica de Langmuir, así como arrojar luz sobre la transición entre las teorías radiales y orbitales que ha sido observada experimentalmente. Justo después de esta sección introductoria, el resto de la tesis está dividido en tres partes tal y como sigue: La primera parte está dedicada a establecer los fundamentos teóricos de las sondas de Langmuir. En primer lugar, se realiza una introducción general al problema y al uso de sondas de Langmuir como método de diagnosis de plasmas. A continuación, se incluye una extensiva revisión bibliográfica sobre las diferentes teorías que proporcionan la corriente iónica recogida por una sonda. La segunda parte está dedicada a explicar los detalles de las simulaciones de partículas que han sido desarrolladas a lo largo de nuestra investigación, así como los resultados obtenidos con las mismas. Esta parte incluye una introducción sobre la teoría que subyace el tipo de simulaciones de partículas y las técnicas de paralelización que han sido usadas en nuestros códigos. El resto de esta parte está dividido en dos capítulos, cada uno de los cuales se ocupa de una de las geometrías consideradas en nuestras simulaciones (plana y cilíndrica). En esta parte discutimos también los descubrimientos realizados relativos a la transición entre el comportamiento radial y orbital de los iones en los alrededores de una sonda cilíndrica de Langmuir. Finalmente, en la tercera parte de la tesis se presenta un resumen del trabajo realizado. En este resumen, se enumeran brevemente los resultados de nuestra investigación y se han incluido algunas conclusiones. Después de esto, se enumeran una serie de perspectivas futuras y extensiones para los códigos desarrollados.

Síntese de zeólita A a partir de diatomita como fonte de aluminossilicato

The synthesis of zeolites from natural sources of silicon and aluminum are promising alternative routes to obtain porous or zeolite MCM family. Such materials are typically used in catalytic processes and / or adsorption is to obtain new products or for separation and purification processes thereof. Environmental legislation is becoming stricter and requires the use of materials more efficient, aiming to achieve pollution prevention, by gas or liquid contaminants in the environment. In order to obtain a material with environmentally friendly features, this study aimed at the synthesis of zeolite A, from an amorphous sediment, diatomite, which is found in abundance in the northeast region of Brazil, may be substituted for conventional products the production of zeolite, involving higher costs. The methodology for obtaining the "Zeolite A" using as a source of silica and alumina diatomite is simple, since this is a source of silicon, not requiring therefore a structural driver, but also by heat treatment, only drying conventional to remove water. The "zeolite A" was obtained from diatomite, but as an intermediate step we obtained the sodalite. The characterization was made by the following techniques: EDX, XRD, FT-IR, SEM and determining a specific area by the BET method and the BJH method for checking the diameter of pores. By characterization of the obtained material was first demonstrated the achievement of sodalite and after modification of the same, there was obtained zeolite A

Electrical characterization of CVD diamond-n(+) silicon junctions

The electrical characteristics of CVD-diamond/n(+)-Si heterojunction devices are reported. Below 250 K the diodes show an unusual inversion of their rectification properties. This behavior is attributed to an enhanced tunneling component due to interface states, which change their occupation with the applied bias. The temperature dependence of the loss tangent shows two relaxation processes with different activation energies. These processes are likely related with two parallel charge transport mechanisms, one through the diamond grain, and the other through the grain boundary. (C) 2001 Elsevier Science B.V. Ah rights reserved.

Electrical characterization of pn-junctions of PPV and silicon

Poly(phenylene vinylene) (PPV) grown via the precursor route, deposited on top of heavily doped n-type silicon, was studied using electrical measurement techniques. The results are compared to PPV grown via deposition of soluble derivative (MEH-PPV). The two types are very similar. They have comparable free carrier densities and both show minority-carrier effects. The activation energy found via the loss tangent is 0.13 eV. The effect of exposure to oxygen is visible in the capacitance and the current.