The Application of Semiconductor Photocatalysis for the Removal of Cyanotoxins from Water and Design Concepts for Solar Photocatalytic Reactors for Large Scale Water Treatment

There has been a significant increase in the occurrence of cyanobacterial blooms in freshwaters over the past few decades due to escalating nutrient levels. These cyanobacteria release a range of toxins, for example microcystins which are chemically very stable. Many cyanotoxins are consequently very difficult to remove from water using existing treatment technologies. Semiconductor photocatalysis, however, has proven to be a very effective process for the removal of these compounds from water. In this chapter we consider the application of this highly versatile and exciting technology for the decomposition of cyanotoxins. Furthermore design concepts for solar photocatalytic reactors that could be utilized for the removal of these toxins are also considered

The Dynamics of Rapid Redshifted and Blueshifted Excursions in the Solar Hα Line

We analyze high temporal and spatial resolution time-series of spectralscans of the Hα line obtained with the CRisp Imaging SpectroPolarimeter instrument mounted on the Swedish Solar Telescope.The data reveal highly dynamic, dark, short-lived structures known asRapid Redshifted and Blueshifted Excursions (RREs, RBEs) that areon-disk absorption features observed in the red and blue wings ofspectral lines formed in the chromosphere. We study the dynamics of RREsand RBEs by tracking their evolution in space and time, measuring thespeed of the apparent motion, line of sight (LOS) Doppler velocity, andtransverse velocity of individual structures. A statistical study oftheir measured properties shows that RREs and RBEs have similaroccurrence rates, lifetimes, lengths, and widths. They also displaynon-periodic, nonlinear transverse motions perpendicular to their axesat speeds of 4-31 km s-1. Furthermore, both typesof structures either appear as high speed jets and blobs that aredirected outwardly from a magnetic bright point with speeds of50-150 km s-1, or emerge within a few seconds. Astudy of the different velocity components suggests that the transversemotions along the LOS of the chromospheric flux tubes are responsiblefor the formation and appearance of these redshifted/blueshiftedstructures. The short lifetime and fast disappearance of the RREs/RBEssuggests that, similar to type II spicules, they are rapidly heated totransition region or even coronal temperatures. We speculate that theKelvin-Helmholtz instability triggered by observed transversemotions of these structures may be a viable mechanism for their heating.

Intensity Enhancement of O VI Ultraviolet Emission Lines in Solar Spectra due to Opacity

Opacity is a property of many plasmas. It is normally expected that if an emission line in a plasma becomes optically thick, then its intensity ratio to that of another transition that remains optically thin should decrease. However, radiative transfer calculations undertaken both by ourselves and others predict that under certain conditions the intensity ratio of an optically thick to an optically thin line can show an increase over the optically thin value, indicating an enhancement in the former. These conditions include the geometry of the emitting plasma and its orientation to the observer. A similar effect can take place between lines of differing optical depths. While previous observational studies have focused on stellar point sources, here we investigate the spatially resolved solar atmosphere using measurements of the I(1032 Å)/I(1038 Å) intensity ratio of O VI in several regions obtained with the Solar Ultraviolet Measurements of Emitted Radiation instrument on board the Solar and Heliospheric Observatory satellite. We find several I(1032 Å)/I(1038 Å) ratios observed on the disk to be significantly larger than the optically thin value of 2.0, providing the first detection (to our knowledge) of intensity enhancement in the ratio arising from opacity effects in the solar atmosphere. The agreement between observation and theory is excellent and confirms that the O VI emission originates from a slab-like geometry in the solar atmosphere, rather than from cylindrical structures.

Solar Flare Impulsive Phase Emission Observed with SDO/EVE

Differential emission measures (DEMs) during the impulsive phase of solar flares were constructed using observations from the EUV Variability Experiment (EVE) and the Markov-Chain Monte Carlo method. Emission lines from ions formed over the temperature range log Te = 5.8-7.2 allow the evolution of the DEM to be studied over a wide temperature range at 10 s cadence. The technique was applied to several M- and X-class flares, where impulsive phase EUV emission is observable in the disk-integrated EVE spectra from emission lines formed up to 3-4 MK and we use spatially unresolved EVE observations to infer the thermal structure of the emitting region. For the nine events studied, the DEMs exhibited a two-component distribution during the impulsive phase, a low-temperature component with peak temperature of 1-2 MK, and a broad high-temperature component from 7 to 30 MK. A bimodal high-temperature component is also found for several events, with peaks at 8 and 25 MK during the impulsive phase. The origin of the emission was verified using Atmospheric Imaging Assembly images to be the flare ribbons and footpoints, indicating that the constructed DEMs represent the spatially average thermal structure of the chromospheric flare emission during the impulsive phase.

Solar phase functions of cometary nuclei

Relatively few measurements of the solar phase function of cometary nuclei exist, despite the importance of this parameter in determining accurate sizes and its use in modeling surface properties. We make use of robotic telescopes and servicemode observing to monitor cometary nuclei over months at a time, combining intensive observations at a single epoch with regular short light-curve segments to efficiently account for brightness changes due to both nucleus rotation and changing solar phase angle. We present our latest results on comets 8P/Tuttle, 14P/Wolf, 67P/Churyumov- Gerasimenko and 110P/Hartley 3.

Development of a Polymer-carbon Nanotubes based Economic Solar Collector

A low cost solar collector was developed by using polymeric components as opposed to metal and glass components of traditional solar collectors. In order to utilize polymers for the absorber of the solar collector, Carbon Nanotubes (CNT) has been added as a filler to improve the thermal conductivity and the solar absorptivity of polymers. The solar collector was designed as a multi-layer construction with considering the economic manufacturing. Through the mathematical heat transfer analysis, the performance and characteristics of the designed solar collector have been estimated. Furthermore, the prototypes of the proposed system were built and tested at a state-of-the-art solar simulator facility to evaluate the actual performance of the developed solar collector. The cost-effective polymer-CNT solar collector, which achieved efficiency as much as that of a conventional glazed flat plate solar panel, has been successfully developed.

Comet C/2012 S1 (ISON): Observations of the Dust Grains from SOFIA and of the Atomic Gas from NSO Dunn and McMath-Pierce Solar Telescopes (Invited)

Comet C/2012 S1 (ISON) is unique in that it is a dynamically new comet derived from the Oort cloud reservoir of comets with a sun-grazing orbit. Infrared (IR) and visible wavelength observing campaigns were planned on NASA's Stratospheric Observatory For Infrared Astronomy (SOFIA) and on National Solar Observatory Dunn (DST) and McMath-Pierce Solar Telescopes, respectively. We highlight our early results. SOFIA (+FORCAST [1]) mid- to far-IR images and spectroscopy (~5-35 μm) of the dust in the coma of ISON are to be obtained by the ISON-SOFIA Team during a flight window 2013 Oct 21-23 UT (r_h≈1.18 AU). Dust characteristics, identified through the 10 μm silicate emission feature and its strength [2], as well as spectral features from cometary crystalline silicates (Forsterite) at 11.05-11.2 μm, and near 16, 19, 23.5, 27.5, and 33 μm are compared with other Oort cloud comets that span the range of small and/or highly porous grains (e.g., C/1995 O1 (Hale-Bopp) [3,4,5] and C/2001 Q4 (NEAT) [6]) to large and/or compact grains (e.g., C/2007 N4 (Lulin) [7] and C/2006 P1 (McNaught) [8]). Measurement of the crystalline peaks in contrast to the broad 10 and 20 μm amorphous silicate features yields the cometary silicate crystalline mass fraction [9], which is a benchmark for radial transport in our protoplanetary disk [10]. The central wavelength positions, relative intensities, and feature asymmetries for the crystalline peaks may constrain the shapes of the crystals [11]. Only SOFIA can look for cometary organics in the 5-8 μm region. Spatially resolved measurements of atoms and simple molecules from when comet ISON is near the Sun (r_h<0.4 AU, near Nov-20--Dec-03 UT) were proposed for by the ISON-DST Team. Comet ISON is the first comet since comet Ikeya-Seki (1965f) [12,13] suitable for studying the alkalai metals Na and K and the atoms specifically attributed to dust grains including Mg, Si, Fe, as well as Ca. DST's Horizontal Grating Spectrometer (HGS) measures 4 settings: Na I, K, C2 to sample cometary organics (along with Mg I), and [O I] as a proxy for activity from water [14] (along with Si I and Fe I). State-of-the-art instruments that will also be employed include IBIS [15], which is a Fabry-Perot spectral imaging system that concurrently measures lines of Na, K, Ca II, or Fe, and ROSA (CSUN/QUB) [16], which is a rapid imager that simultaneously monitors Ca II or CN. From McMath-Pierce, the Solar-Stellar Spectrograph also will target ISON (320-900 nm, R~21,000, r_h

Turbulent Fluctuations in G-band and K-line Intensities Observed with the Rapid Oscillations in the Solar Atmosphere (ROSA) Instrument

Using the Rapid Oscillation in the Solar Atmosphere (ROSA) instrument at the Dunn Solar Telescope we have found that the spectra of fluctuations of the G-band (cadence 1.05 s) and Ca II K-line (cadence 4.2 s) intensities show correlated fluctuations above white noise out to frequencies beyond 300 mHz and up to 70 mHz, respectively. The noise-corrected G-band spectrum presents a scaling range (Ultra High Frequency “UHF”) for f = 25-100 mHz, with an exponent consistent with the presence of turbulent motions. The UHF power, is concentrated at the locations of magnetic bright points in the intergranular lanes, it is highly intermittent in time and characterized by a positive kurtosis κ. Combining values of G-band and K-line intensities, the UHF power, and κ, reveals two distinct “states” of the internetwork solar atmosphere. State 1, with κ ≍ 6, which includes almost all the data, is characterized by low intensities and low UHF power. State 2, with κ ≍ 3, including a very small fraction of the data, is characterized by high intensities and high UHF power. Superposed epoch analysis shows that for State 1, the K-line intensity presents 3.5 min chromospheric oscillations with maxima occurring 21 s after G-band intensity maxima implying a 150-210 km effective height difference. For State 2, the G-band and K-line intensity maxima are simultaneous, suggesting that in the highly magnetized environment sites of G-band and K-line emission may be spatially close together. Analysis of observations obtained with Hinode/SOT confirm a scaling range in the G-band spectrum up to 53 mHz also consistent with turbulent motions as well as the identification of two distinct states in terms of the H-line intensity and G-band power as functions of G-band intensity.

Rapid Oscillations in the Solar Atmosphere: Spectra and Physical Effects

High-frequency fluctuations are observed with the Rapid Oscillations in the Solar Atmosphere (ROSA) instrument (Jess et al. 2010, Solar Phys, 261, 363) at the Dunn Solar Telescope. This can produce simultaneous observations in up to six channels, at different heights in the photosphere and chromosphere, at an unprecedentedly high cadence of 0.5 seconds, and at a spatial resolution of 100 km after photometrically correct speckle reconstruction. Here we concentrate on observations at two levels. The first is in the G-band of the CH radical at 4305.5Å, bandpass 9.2Å, with height of formation z <250 km at a cadence of 0.525 sec corresponding to Nyquist frequency 950 mHz. The second is in the Ca II K-line core at 3933.7Å, bandpass 1.0Å, with height of formation z <1300 km, and cadence 4.2 sec giving Nyquist frequency 120 mHz. The data span 53 min, and the maximum field of view is 45 Mm. The data were taken on 28 May 2009 in internetwork and network near disk center. Using both Fourier and Morlet wavelet methods we find evidence in the G-band spectra for intensity fluctuations above noise out to frequencies f >> 100 mHz. The K-line signal is noisier and is seen only for f <50 mHz. With wavelet techniques we find that G-band spectral power with 20 <f <100 mHz is clearly concentrated in the intergranular lanes and especially at the locations of magnetic elements indicated by G-band bright points. This wavelet power is highly intermittent in time. By cross-correlating the data we find that pulses of high-frequency G-band power in the photosphere tend to be followed by increases in K-line emission in the chromosphere with a time lag of about 2 min.

ROSA: A High-cadence, Synchronized Multi-camera Solar Imaging System

The Rapid Oscillations in the Solar Atmosphere (ROSA) instrument is a synchronized, six-camera high-cadence solar imaging instrument developed by Queen's University Belfast and recently commissioned at the Dunn Solar Telescope at the National Solar Observatory in Sunspot, New Mexico, USA, as a common-user instrument. Consisting of six 1k x 1k Peltier-cooled frame-transfer CCD cameras with very low noise (0.02 - 15 e/pixel/s), each ROSA camera is capable of full-chip readout speeds in excess of 30 Hz, and up to 200 Hz when the CCD is windowed. ROSA will allow for multi-wavelength studies of the solar atmosphere at a high temporal resolution. We will present the current instrument set-up and parameters, observing modes, and future plans, including a new high QE camera allowing 15 Hz for Halpha. Interested parties should see https://habu.pst.qub.ac.uk/groups/arcresearch/wiki/de502/ROSA.html

Net energy analysis of a solar combi system with Seasonal Thermal Energy Store

EU targets require nearly zero energy buildings (NZEB) by 2020. However few monitored examples exist of how NZEB has been achieved in practise in individual residential buildings. This paper provides an example of how a low-energy building (built in 2006), has achieved nearly zero energy heating through the addition of a solar domestic hot water and space heating system (“combi system”) with a Seasonal Thermal Energy Store (STES). The paper also presents a cumulative life cycle energy and cumulative life cycle carbon analysis for the installation based on the recorded DHW and space heating demand in addition to energy payback periods and net energy ratios. In addition, the carbon and energy analysis is carried out for four other heating system scenarios including hybrid solar thermal/PV systems in order to obtain the optimal system from a carbon efficiency perspective.

Highly Electrocatalytic Activity of RuO2 Nanocrystals for Triiodide Reduction in Dye-Sensitized Solar Cells

Dye-sensitized solar cells (DSCs) are promising alternatives to conventional silicon devices because of their simple fabrication procedure, low cost, and high efficiency. Platinum is generally used as a superior counter electrode (CE) material, but the disadvantages such as high cost and low abundance greatly restrict the large-scale application of DSCs. An efficient and sustainable way to overcome the limited supply of Pt is the development of high-efficiency Pt-free CE materials, which should possess both high electrical conductivity and superior electrocatalytic activity simultaneously. Herein, for the first time, a two-step strategy to synthesize ruthenium dioxide (RuO2) nanocrystals is reported, and it is shown that RuO2 catalysts exhibit promising electrocatalytic activity towards triiodide reduction, which results in comparable energy conversion efficiency to that of conventional Pt CEs. More importantly, by virtue of first-principles calculations, the catalytic mechanism of electrocatalysis for triiodide reduction on various CEs is investigated systematically and it is found that the electrochemical triiodide reduction reaction on RuO2 catalyst surfaces can be enhanced significantly, owing to the ideal combination of good electrocatalytic activity and high electrical conductivity.

Facet-Dependent Catalytic Activity of Platinum Nanocrystals for Triiodide Reduction in Dye-Sensitized Solar Cells

Platinum (Pt) nanocrystals have demonstrated to be an effective catalyst in many heterogeneous catalytic processes. However, pioneer facets with highest activity have been reported differently for various reaction systems. Although Pt has been the most important counter electrode material for dye-sensitized solar cells (DSCs), suitable atomic arrangement on the exposed crystal facet of Pt for triiodide reduction is still inexplicable. Using density functional theory, we have investigated the catalytic reaction processes of triiodide reduction over {100}, {111} and {411} facets, indicating that the activity follows the order of Pt(111) > Pt(411) > Pt(100). Further, Pt nanocrystals mainly bounded by {100}, {111} and {411} facets were synthesized and used as counter electrode materials for DSCs. The highest photovoltaic conversion efficiency of Pt(111) in DSCs confirms the predictions of the theoretical study. These findings have deepened the understanding of the mechanism of triiodide reduction at Pt surfaces and further screened the best facet for DSCs successfully.

Radiative hydrodynamic modelling and observations of the X-class solar flare on 2011 March 9

Aims. We investigated the response of the solar atmosphere to non-thermal electron beam heating using the radiative transfer and hydrodynamics modelling code RADYN. The temporal evolution of the parameters that describe the non-thermal electron energy distribution were derived from hard X-ray observations of a particular flare, and we compared the modelled and observed parameters.

Methods. The evolution of the non-thermal electron beam parameters during the X1.5 solar flare on 2011 March 9 were obtained from analysis of RHESSI X-ray spectra. The RADYN flare model was allowed to evolve for 110 s, after which the electron beam heating was ended, and was then allowed to continue evolving for a further 300 s. The modelled flare parameters were compared to the observed parameters determined from extreme-ultraviolet spectroscopy.

Results. The model produced a hotter and denser flare loop than that observed and also cooled more rapidly, suggesting that additional energy input in the decay phase of the flare is required. In the explosive evaporation phase a region of high-density cool material propagated upward through the corona. This material underwent a rapid increase in temperature as it was unable to radiate away all of the energy deposited across it by the non-thermal electron beam and via thermal conduction. A narrow and high-density (ne ≤ 1015 cm-3) region at the base of the flare transition region was the source of optical line emission in the model atmosphere. The collision-stopping depth of electrons was calculated throughout the evolution of the flare, and it was found that the compression of the lower atmosphere may permit electrons to penetrate farther into a flaring atmosphere compared to a quiet Sun atmosphere.