Mapping and cloning of genes from portions of the human genome using somatic cell hybrids

Human x rodent somatic cell hybrids have played an important role in human genetics research. They have been especially useful for assigning genes to chromosomes and isolating DNA markers from specific regions of the human genome.^ By employing a combination of somatic cell genetic, recombinant DNA, and cytogenetic techniques, human DNA excision repair gene ERCC4 was mapped regionally to human 16p13.13-13.2, even though the gene has not been cloned. Human x Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) cell hybrids selected for human ERCC4 activity and containing 16p13.1-p13.3 as the only human genetic material were identified. These hybrids were used to order DNA markers located in 16p13.1-p13.3. New DNA markers physically close to ERCC4 were isolated from such hybrids. Using amplified human DNA from the hybrids as probe in fluorescent in situ hybridization, the short arm breakpoint in the chromosome 16 inversion associated with acute myelomonocytic leukemia (AMML) was found to be physically close to the ERCC4 gene. The physical mapping and eventually, the cloning of the ERCC4 gene, will benefit the understanding of the DNA repair system and the study of other important biomedical problems such as tumorigenesis.^ To facilitate the cloning of ERCC4 gene and, in general, the cloning of genes from any defined regions of the human genome, a method was developed for the direct isolation of human transcribed genes ffom somatic cell hybrids. cDNA was prepared from human x rodent hybrid by using consensus 5$\sp\prime$ splice site sequences as primers. These primers were designed to select immature, unspliced messenger RNA (still retaining species specific repeat sequences) as templates. Screening of a derived cDNA library for human repeat sequences resulted in the isolation of human clones at the anticipated frequency with characteristics expected of exons of transcribed human genes. The usefulness of the splice site specific primers was analyzed and the cDNA synthesis conditions with these primers were optimized. The procedure was shown to be sensitive enough to clone weakly expressed genes. Studying the expression of the represented genes with the isolated clones was shown to be feasible. Such regional specific human gene fragments will be very valuable for many human genetic studies such as the search of inherited disease genes and the construction of a cDNA map of the human genome. ^

Studies on the role of BCR in Philadelphia chromosome-positive leukemias

It is well established that the chimeric Bcr-Abl oncoprotein resulting from fusing 3$\sp\prime$ ABL sequences on chromosome 9 to 5$\sp\prime$ BCR sequences on chromosome 22 is the primary cause of Philadelphia chromosome-positive (Ph$\sp1$) leukemias. Although it is clear that the cis-Bcr sequence present within Bcr-Abl is able to activate the tyrosine kinase activity and F-actin binding capacity of Bcr-Abl which is critical for the transforming ability of BCR-ABL, the biological role of normal BCR gene product (P160 BCR) remains largely unknown. The previous finding by our lab that P160 BCR forms stable complexes with Bcr-Abl oncoprotein in Ph$\sp1$-positive leukemic cells implicated P160 BCR in the pathogenesis of Ph$\sp1$-positive leukemias. Here, we demonstrated that P160 BCR physically interacts with P210 BCR-ABL and become tyrosine phosphorylated when co-expressed with P210 BCR-ABL in COS1 cells while no tyrosine phosphorylation of P160 BCR can be detected when it is expressed alone. The results suggest that P160 BCR is a target for the Bcr-Abl tyrosine kinase. Although we were unable to detect stable physical interaction between P160 BCR and P145 c-ABL (Ib) in COS1 cells overexpressing both proteins, P160 BCR was phosphorylated on tyrosine residues when co-expressed with activated tyrosine kinase of P145 c-ABL (Ib). In addition, studies of tyrosine phosphorylation of BCR deletion mutants and 2-dimensional tryptic mapping of in vitro phosphorylated wild type and mutant (tyrosine to phenylalanine) Bcr-Abl indicated that tyrosine 177, 283 and 360 of Bcr represent some of the phosphorylation sites. Even though the significance of tyrosine phosphorylation of residues 283 and 360 of Bcr has not been determined, tyrosine phosphorylation of residue 177 within Bcr-Abl has been reported to be critical for its interaction with Grb2 molecule and subsequent activation of Ras signaling pathway. Here, we further demonstrated that tyrosine 177 phosphorylated P160 BCR is also able to bind to Grb2 molecule suggesting the role of P160 BCR in the Ras signaling pathway.^ Surprisingly, using 3$\sp\prime$ BCR antisense oligonucleotide to reduce the expression of P160 BCR without interfering with the expression of BCR-ABL resulted in increased growth or survival of B15 cells and M3.16 cells expressing either P185 BCR-ABL or P210 BCR-ABL respectively. The results provided strong arguments that P160 BCR may function as a negative regulator for cell growth.^ Considering all these results, we hypothesize that P160 BCR negatively regulate cell growth and tyrosine phosphorylation of P160 BCR turns off its growth suppressor function and turns on its growth stimulatory function. We further speculate that Bcr-Abl oncoprotein in leukemia cells stably interacts with and constitutively phosphorylates portions of P160 BCR converting it into a growth stimulatory state. In normal cells, the growth suppressor effects of P160 BCR could only be transiently and conditionally switched to growth stimulatory action by a strictly regulated cellular tyrosine kinase such as c-ABL. The model will be further discussed in the text. ^

Does cigarette smoking modify the association between change in body mass index during young adulthood and risk of coronary mortality during middle-age in men? Twenty-five year follow-up results from the Chicago Western Electric Study

Many persons in the U.S. gain weight during young adulthood, and the prevalence of obesity has been increasing among young adults. Although obesity and physical inactivity are generally recognized as risk factors for coronary heart disease (CHD), the magnitude of their effect on risk may have been seriously underestimated due to failure to adequately handle the problem of cigarette smoking. Since cigarette smoking causes weight loss, physically inactive cigarette smokers may remain relatively lean because they smoke cigarettes. We hypothesize cigarette smoking modifies the association between weight gain during young adulthood and risk of coronary heart disease during middle age, and that the true effect of weight gain during young adulthood on risk of CHD can be assessed only in persons who have not smoked cigarettes. Specifically, we hypothesize that weight gain during young adulthood is positively associated with risk of CHD during middle-age in nonsmokers but that the association is much smaller or absent entirely among cigarette smokers. The purpose of this study was to test this hypothesis. The population for analysis was comprised of 1,934 middle-aged, employed men whose average age at the baseline examination was 48.7 years. Information collected at the baseline examinations in 1958 and 1959 included recalled weight at age 20, present weight, height, smoking status, and other CHD risk factors. To decrease the effect of intraindividual variation, the mean values of the 1958 and 1959 baseline examinations were used in analyses. Change in body mass index ($\Delta$BMI) during young adulthood was the primary exposure variable and was measured as BMI at baseline (kg/m$\sp2)$ minus BMI at age 20 (kg/m$\sp2).$ Proportional hazards regression analysis was used to generate relative risks of CHD mortality by category of $\Delta$BMI and cigarette smoking status after adjustment for age, family history of CVD, major organ system disease, BMI at age 20, and number of cigarettes smoked per day. Adjustment was not performed for systolic blood pressure or total serum cholesterol as these were regarded as intervening variables. Vital status was known for all men on the 25th anniversary of their baseline examinations. 705 deaths (including 319 CHD deaths) occurred over 40,136 person-years of experience. $\Delta$BMI was positively associated with risk of CHD mortality in never-smokers, but not in ever-smokers (p for interaction = 0.067). For never-smokers with $\Delta$BMI of stable, low gain, moderate gain, and high gain, adjusted relative risks were 1.00, 1.62, 1.61, and 2.78, respectively (p for trend = 0.010). For ever-smokers, with $\Delta$BMI of stable, low gain, moderate gain, and high gain, adjusted relative risks were 1.00, 0.74, 1.07, and 1.06, respectively (p for trend = 0.422). These results support the research hypothesis that cigarette smoking modifies the association between weight gain and CHD mortality. Current estimates of the magnitude of effect of obesity and physical inactivity on risk of coronary mortality may have been seriously underestimated due to inadequate handling of cigarette smoking. ^

The volume effect in irradiated mouse colorectum

Damage of the colorectum is the dose-limiting normal tissue complication following radiotherapy of prostate and cervical cancers. One approach for decreasing complications is to physically reduce the treatment volume. Mathematical models have been previously developed to describe the change in associated toxicity with a change in irradiated volume, i.e. the "volume effect", for serial-type normal tissues including the colorectum. The first goal of this thesis was to test the hypothesis that there would not be a threshold length in the development of obstruction after irradiation of mouse colorectum, as predicted by the Probability model of the volume effect. The second goal was to examine if there were differences in the threshold and in the incidence of colorectal obstruction after irradiation of two mouse strains, C57B1/6 (C57) and C3Hf/Kam (C3H), previously found to be fibrosis-prone and-resistant, respectively, after lung irradiation due, in part, to genetic differences. The hypothesis examined was that differences in incidence between strains were due to the differential expression of the fibrogenic cytokines $\rm TGF\beta$ and $\rm TNF\alpha.$ Various lengths of C57 and C3H mouse colorectum were irradiated and the incidence of colorectal obstruction was followed up to 15 months. A threshold length was observed for both mouse strains, in contradiction of model predictions. The mechanism of the threshold was epithelial regeneration after irradiation. C57 mice had significantly higher incidence of colorectal obstruction compared to C3H mice, especially at smaller irradiated lengths. Colorectal tissue was obtained at various times after irradiation and prepared for histology, immunohistochemistry and RNase protection assay for measurement of $\rm TGF\beta 1,$ 2, 3 and $\rm TNF\alpha$ mRNA. Distinct strain differences in the histological time of appearance and spatial locations of fibrosis were observed. However, there were no consistent strain difference in mRNA levels or immunolocalization for any of the cytokines examined. The data indicate the need for volume effect models that account for biologically important processes, such as the effect of epithelial regeneration after irradiation. As well, changes in fibrogenic cytokines at the mRNA level do not contribute to the strain difference in radiation-induced colorectal obstruction. ^

Modular organization of the cortical connections linking visual areas V1, V2 and V4 in Macaque monkeys

The macaque cortical visual system is hierarchically organized into two streams, the ventral stream for recognizing objects and the dorsal stream for analyzing spatial relationships. The ventral stream extends from striate cortex or area V1 to inferior temporal cortex (IT) through extra-striate areas V2 and V4. Between V1 and V2, the ventral stream consists of two roughly parallel sub-streams, one extending from the cytochrome oxidase (CO) rich blobs in V1 to the CO rich thin stripes in V2, the other extending from the interblobs in V1 to interstripes, in V2. The blob-dominated sub-stream is thought to analyze the surface features such as color, whereas the interblob-dominated one is thought to analyze the contour features such as shape. ^ In the current study, the organization of cortical pathways linking V2 thin stripe and interstripe compartments with area V4 was investigated using a combination of physiological and anatomical techniques. Different compartments of V2 were first characterized, in vivo, using optical recording of intrinsic cortical signals. These functionally derived maps of V2 stripe compartments were then used to guide iontophoretic injections of multiple, distinguishable, anterograde tracers into specific V2 compartments. The distribution of labeled axons was analyzed either in horizontal sections through the prelunate gyrus, or in tangentially sectioned portions of physically unfolded cortex containing the lunate sulcus, prelunate gyrus and superior temporal sulcus. When a V2 thin stripe and adjacent interstripe were injected with distinguishable tracers, a large primary and several secondary foci were observed in V4. The primary focus from the thin stripe injection was spatially segregated from the primary focus from the V2 interstripe injection, suggesting a retention of the pattern of compartmentation. ^ We examined the distribution of retrogradely labeled cells in V1 following the injections of tracers into V2 different compartments, in order to quantitate just how parallel the two sub-streams are from V1 to V2. Our results suggest that both blobs and interblobs project to thin stripes in V2, whereas only interblobs project to interstripes. This asymmetrical segregation argues against the original proposal of strict parallelism. (Abstract shortened by UMI.) ^

Does culture really matter in sports participation? The impact of socio-cultural factors on sports behaviour in Switzerland

The physical activity of the Swiss population differs considerably depending on the linguistic region. German speakers are more often physically active than people living in the French or Italian-speaking part of Switzerland (Stamm & Lamprecht, 2011). This study analyses how socio-cultural factors correlate with sports participation for adolescents and young adults. In order to analyse this research question, Bourdieu’s concept of habitus (1984) has been adapted and used as a theoretical background. This sport-related concept of habitus considers culturally determined values, the attribution of meaning and patterns of action such as the understanding of sports, the importance of sports, body, health or leisure. On this basis, the sport-related habitus and the practical relevance of sports participation has been empirically reconstructed for adolescents and young adults aged 15 to 25 through a qualitative study including guideline-based interviews with German (n=6) and French (n=4) speaking adolescents and young adults, as well as a quantitative survey in a German (n=106) and a French (n=99) speaking commune of Switzerland. Initial findings reveal that young German speakers associate sports with self-discipline (χ²(1, N=205)= 8.223, p<.005, V=.200) and fitness (χ²(1, N=205)= 21.989, p<.005, V=.328) whereas young French speakers are more likely to relate health (χ²(1, N=205)= 9.455, p<.005, V=.215), effort and perspiration (χ²(1, N=205)= 18.835, p<.005, V=.303) to sports. Similarly, the understanding of body and health as well as the attitude towards leisure differs between the German and French speaking parts of Switzerland. This study illustrates that the concept of sports habitus is culturally shaped and therefore may be fruitful in further analyses. Bourdieu, P. (1984). Distinction. A Social Critique of the Judgement of Taste. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. Stamm, H. & Lamprecht, M. (2008). Swiss sports participation in an international perspective. European Journal for Sport and Society, 8 (1+2), 15-29.

The impact of structural conditions in communes on sports behaviour of adolescents and young adults in Switzerland

Young peoples’ sport activity in Switzerland differs considerably depending on the linguistic region (Lamprecht, Fischer, & Stamm, 2008). This appears to be based on cultural as well as on structural differences. The question then arises how differing structural conditions in communes (e.g. sport facilities, significance of the municipal promotion of sport) across different linguistic regions of Switzerland cause variation in sport behaviour. Based on the theory of social action (Coleman, 1990), it is assumed that individual behaviour is not only determined by individual but also by structural and socio-cultural factors in which a person is socially embedded. In two case studies, multilevel data was gathered analysing possible influences of structural factors on sports behaviour. Using an online survey, 15 to 25 year old inhabitants (N = 205) living in a German and French speaking commune were questioned about their sports participation in and outside of their commune, as well as their perception of sport-related structural characteristics in their commune. To collect information about communes’ sport facilities, the sport providers (N = 23) were interviewed. Sport-related characteristics of the communes were also collected through two interviews with representatives of the municipal administration. As expected, sport participation is significantly lower in the French speaking commune (Chi2 (1, N = 205) = 3.84, p < .05). Adolescents and young adults living in the French speaking commune are less satisfied with the sport infrastructure (F(1,135) = 9.65, p < .01) and evaluate the opportunities to be physically active in their commune significantly worse (F(1,144) = 15.33, p < .01) than their German-speaking counterparts. These first findings show the impact of structural conditions in communes on sport participation of adolescents and young people. However, it must be noted that this study is explorative and further communes would need to be examined in order to generalize the results. References Coleman, J. S. (1990). Foundations of social theory. Cambridge, MA: Belknap. Lamprecht, M., Fischer, A. & Stamm, H. (2008). Sport Schweiz 2008. Das Sportverhalten der Schweizer Bevölkerung. Magglingen: BASPO.

The impact of structural conditions in communes on physical activity and sports behaviour of adolescents and young adults in Switzerland

Introduction The physical activity of the Swiss population differs considerably depending on the linguistic region. German speakers are more often physically active than people living in the French- or Italian-speaking part of Switzerland (Stamm & Lamprecht, 2008). This study analyses how differing structural conditions in communes (e.g. sport facilities, significance of the municipal promotion of sport) across different linguistic regions of Switzerland correlate with physical activity and sports participation for adolescents and young adults. Methodological approach Based on the theory of social action (Coleman, 1990), it is assumed that individual behaviour is not only determined by individual but also by structural and socio-cultural factors in which a person is socially embedded. In two case studies, multilevel data was gathered analysing possible influences of structural factors on sports behaviour. Using an online survey, 15 to 25 year old inhabitants (N = 205) living in a German- and French-speaking commune were questioned about their sports participation in and outside of their commune, as well as their perception of sport-related structural characteristics in their commune. To collect information about communes’ sport facilities, the sport providers (N = 23) were interviewed. Sport-related characteristics of the communes were also collected through two interviews with representatives of the municipal administration. Results and discussion Physical activity is significantly higher (Chi2 (1, N = 183) = 4.78, p < .05) and sport participation is significantly lower in the French speaking commune (Chi2 (1, N = 205) = 3.84, p < .05). Adolescents and young adults in the French speaking commune (M = 3.15, SD = 1.23) are less satisfied with the opportunities to be physically active in the environment than their counterparts living in the German speaking commune (p < .001, Mann-Whitney U – test). These first findings show the impact of structural conditions in communes on physical activity and sport participation of adolescents and young people. However, it must be noted that this study is explorative and further communes would need to be examined in order to generalize the results. References Coleman J S (1990). Foundations of social theory. Belknap, Cambridge, MA. Stamm H, Lamprecht M (2008). EJSS, 8(1+2), 15-29.

Regional differences of physical activity and sedentary behaviour in Swiss children are not explained by socio-demographics or the built environment

Objective We evaluated whether regional differences in physical activity (PA) and sedentary behaviour (SB) existed along language boundaries within Switzerland and whether potential differences would be explained by socio-demographics or environmental characteristics. Methods We combined data of 611 children aged 4 to 7 years from four regional studies. PA and SB were assessed by accelerometers. Information about the socio-demographic background was obtained by questionnaires. Objective neighbourhood attributes could be linked to home addresses. Multivariate regression models were used to test associations between PA and SB and socio-demographic characteristics and neighbourhood attributes. Results Children from the German compared to the French-speaking region were more physically active and less sedentary (by 10–15 %, p < 0.01). Although German-speaking children lived in a more favourable environment and a higher socioeconomic neighbourhood (differences p < 0.001), these characteristics did not explain the differences in PA behaviour between French and German speaking. Conclusions Factors related to the language region, which might be culturally rooted were among the strongest correlates of PA and SB among Swiss children, independent of individual, social and environmental factors.

Predicting Physical Activity in Adolescents: The Role of Compensatory Health Beliefs within the Health Action Process Approach

Objective: Compensatory health beliefs (CHBs), defined as beliefs that healthy behaviours can compensate for unhealthy behaviours, may be one possible factor hindering people in adopting a healthier lifestyle. This study examined the contribution of CHBs to the prediction of adolescents’ physical activity within the theoretical framework of the Health Action Process Approach (HAPA). Design: The study followed a prospective survey design with assessments at baseline (T1) and two weeks later (T2). Method: Questionnaire data on physical activity, HAPA variables and CHBs were obtained twice from 430 adolescents of four different Swiss schools. Multilevel modelling was applied. Results: CHBs added significantly to the prediction of intentions and change in intentions, in that higher CHBs were associated with lower intentions to be physically active at T2 and a reduction in intentions from T1 to T2. No effect of CHBs emerged for the prediction of self-reported levels of physical activity at T2 and change in physical activity from T1 to T2. Conclusion: Findings emphasise the relevance of examining CHBs in the context of an established health behaviour change model and suggest that CHBs are of particular importance in the process of intention formation.

The importance of socio-cultural factors on sports behaviour of adolescents and young adults in Switzerland – a conceptualisation on the basis of the habitus-approach

Sport participation has often been the topic in sports science and it could be shown that in Europe the population of northern and western countries are more often physically active than southern and eastern countries (European Commission, 2014). In Switzerland the physical activity of the Swiss population also differs between the linguistic regions. The German speaking population is more often physically active than the French or Italian speaking part (Stamm & Lamprecht, 2008). To explain the differences in sport participation structural and cultural factors have been discussed. Because within a country homogenous structural conditions can be assumed, the aim of this study is to analyse how socio-cultural factors correlate with sport participation of adolescents and young adults. In order to analyse this research question, Bourdieu’s concept of habitus (1984) has been used as theoretical background. This sport-related concept of habitus considers cultural determined values, the attribution of meaning and patterns of action which is socially determined and have an influence on individual actions and therefore also on the sport practise. On this basis, a qualitative study including guideline-based interviews with German (n=5) and French (n=3) speaking adolescents and young adults at the age of 16 to 24 (M=21.4) were held in two different linguistic regions of Switzerland. To analyse the interviews the documentary method was applied (Bohnsack, 2010). Initial findings reveal that there are different sport related values, attributions of meanings and patterns of action also called framework of orientations concerning topics like body, health and leisure which correlate with the habitual sports practise in the two different linguistic regions. This study illustrates that the habitus is culturally shaped and that it could help to understand the meaning of socio-cultural factors for sport participation.

The maize lipoxygenase, ZmLOX10 , mediates green leaf volatile, jasmonate and herbivore-induced plant volatile production for defense against insect attack

Fatty acid derivatives are of central importance for plant immunity against insect herbivores; however, majorregulatory genes and the signals that modulate these defense metabolites are vastly understudied, especiallyin important agro-economic monocot species. Here we show that products and signals derived from a singleZea mays (maize) lipoxygenase (LOX), ZmLOX10, are critical for both direct and indirect defenses to herbiv-ory. We provide genetic evidence that two 13-LOXs, ZmLOX10 and ZmLOX8, specialize in providing substratefor the green leaf volatile (GLV) and jasmonate (JA) biosynthesis pathways, respectively. Supporting the spe-cialization of these LOX isoforms, LOX8 and LOX10 are localized to two distinct cellular compartments, indi-cating that the JA and GLV biosynthesis pathways are physically separated in maize. Reduced expression ofJA biosynthesis genes and diminished levels of JA in lox10 mutants indicate that LOX10-derived signaling isrequired for LOX8-mediated JA. The possible role of GLVs in JA signaling is supported by their ability to par-tially restore wound-induced JA levels in lox10 mutants. The impaired ability of lox10 mutants to produceGLVs and JA led to dramatic reductions in herbivore-induced plant volatiles (HIPVs) and attractiveness toparasitoid wasps. Because LOX10 is under circadian rhythm regulation, this study provides a mechanistic linkto the diurnal regulation of GLVs and HIPVs. GLV-, JA- and HIPV-deficient lox10 mutants display compro-mised resistance to insect feeding, both under laboratory and field conditions, which is strong evidence thatLOX10-dependent metabolites confer immunity against insect attack. Hence, this comprehensive gene toagro-ecosystem study reveals the broad implications of a single LOX isoform in herbivore defense.

A regional climate palaeosimulation for Europe in the period 1500–1990 – Part 2: Shortcomings and strengths of models and reconstructions

This study compares gridded European seasonal series of surface air temperature (SAT) and precipitation (PRE) reconstructions with a regional climate simulation over the period 1500–1990. The area is analysed separately for nine subareas that represent the majority of the climate diversity in the European sector. In their spatial structure, an overall good agreement is found between the reconstructed and simulated climate features across Europe, supporting consistency in both products. Systematic biases between both data sets can be explained by a priori known deficiencies in the simulation. Simulations and reconstructions, however, largely differ in the temporal evolution of past climate for European subregions. In particular, the simulated anomalies during the Maunder and Dalton minima show stronger response to changes in the external forcings than recorded in the reconstructions. Although this disagreement is to some extent expected given the prominent role of internal variability in the evolution of regional temperature and precipitation, a certain degree of agreement is a priori expected in variables directly affected by external forcings. In this sense, the inability of the model to reproduce a warm period similar to that recorded for the winters during the first decades of the 18th century in the reconstructions is indicative of fundamental limitations in the simulation that preclude reproducing exceptionally anomalous conditions. Despite these limitations, the simulated climate is a physically consistent data set, which can be used as a benchmark to analyse the consistency and limitations of gridded reconstructions of different variables. A comparison of the leading modes of SAT and PRE variability indicates that reconstructions are too simplistic, especially for precipitation, which is associated with the linear statistical techniques used to generate the reconstructions. The analysis of the co-variability between sea level pressure (SLP) and SAT and PRE in the simulation yields a result which resembles the canonical co-variability recorded in the observations for the 20th century. However, the same analysis for reconstructions exhibits anomalously low correlations, which points towards a lack of dynamical consistency between independent reconstructions.

The Rice Transcription Factor WRKY53 Suppresses Herbivore-Induced Defenses by Acting as a Negative Feedback Modulator of Mitogen-Activated Protein Kinase Activity

The mechanisms by which herbivore-attacked plants activate their defenses are well studied. By contrast, little is known about the regulatory mechanisms that allow them to control their defensive investment and avoid a defensive overshoot. We characterized a rice (Oryza sativa) WRKY gene, OsWRKY53, whose expression is rapidly induced upon wounding and induced in a delayed fashion upon attack by the striped stem borer (SSB) Chilo suppressalis. The transcript levels of OsWRKY53 are independent of endogenous jasmonic acid but positively regulated by the mitogen-activated protein kinases OsMPK3/OsMPK6. OsWRKY53 physically interacts with OsMPK3/OsMPK6 and suppresses their activity in vitro. By consequence, it modulates the expression of defensive, MPK-regulated WRKYs and thereby reduces jasmonic acid, jasmonoyl-isoleucine, and ethylene induction. This phytohormonal reconfiguration is associated with a reduction in trypsin protease inhibitor activity and improved SSB performance. OsWRKY53 is also shown to be a negative regulator of plant growth. Taken together, these results show that OsWRKY53 functions as a negative feedback modulator of MPK3/MPK6 and thereby acts as an early suppressor of induced defenses. OsWRKY53 therefore enables rice plants to control the magnitude of their defensive investment during early signaling.

The impact of structural conditions in communes on sports behaviour of adolescents and young adults in Switzerland

Young peoples’ sport activity differs considerably depending on the linguistic region in Switzerland (Lamprecht, Fischer, & Stamm, 2014). This appears to be based on cultural as well as on structural differences. The question then arises how differing structural conditions in communes (e.g. sport facilities, significance of the municipal promotion of sport) across different linguistic regions of Switzerland cause variation in sport behaviour. Based on the theory of social action (Coleman, 1990), it is assumed that individual behaviour is not only determined by individual but also by structural and socio - cultural factors in which a person is socially embedded . In 33 municipalities of the German and French speaking region of Switzerland, multilevel data was gathered analysing possible influences of structural factors on sports behaviour. Using an online survey, 15 to 30 year old inhabitants (N=3677) were questi oned about their sports participation, as well as their perception of sport - related structural characteristics in their commune. To collect information about communes’ sport facilities, sport providers as well as representatives of the municipal administra tion were interviewed and document analyses were conducted. Representatives of the municipal administration attach more importance to sport promotion in the German speaking than in French - speaking municipalities. Young people living in the French speaking commune are less satisfied with the sport facilities (F(1,3266)=31.31, p<.01) and they are less physically active than their German - speaking counterparts (Chi2(1,N=3537)=22.51, p<.05). These first findings show the impact of structural conditions in commun es on sport participation of adolescents and young people. However, further multilevel analyses will be conducted for a better understanding of correlations between structural conditions and different sports behaviour of young people. References Coleman, J. S. (1990). Foundations of social theory. Cambridge, MA: Belknap. Lamprecht, M., Fischer, A. & Stamm, H. (2014). Sport Schweiz 2014. Sportaktivität und Sportinteresse der Schweizer Bevölkerung. Magglingen: BASPO.