Researching language teacher cognition and practice:international case studies

This book presents a novel approach to discussing how to research language teacher cognition and practice. An introductory chapter by theeditors and an overview of the research field by Simon Borg precede eigh case studies written by new researchers, each of which focuses on one approach to collecting data. These approaches range from questionnaires and focus groups to think aloud, stimulated recall, and oral reflective journals. Each case study is commented on by a leading expert in the field - JD Brown, Martin Bygate, Donald Freeman, Alan Maley, Jerry Gebhard, Thoma Farrell, Susan Gass, and Jill Burton. Readers are encouraged to enter th conversation by reflecting on a set of questions and tasks in each chapter.

Something to talk about: Content and Language Integrated Learning in Modern Languages in British Higher Education. A case study of German at Aston University

This thesis investigates Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL) in German undergraduate programmes in the UK. At its core is a study of how one German department integrates the teaching of language and content in its undergraduate programmes and how instructors and students experience this approach. This micro-context is embedded in the wider macro-context of UK Higher Education and subject to outside forces - be they political, economic, socio-cultural - whose effects will manifest in more or less obvious ways. Data was collected via an online survey of Heads of German at British universities to determine the status quo of CLIL in UK Higher Education and to investigate how certain institutional parameters determine the introduction of CLIL in Higher Education. This project employs a mixed-method case study approach and is based on student questionnaires and semi-structured interview with German teaching staff. The study brings to light a number of significant aspects. For example, contrary to popular belief, content provision in the L2 is rather common at British universities, which is currently not reflected in the research. Student data indicates that German students perceive clear advantages in the university’s approach to CLIL. They consider German-taught content classes challenging yet beneficial for their language development. Staff interviews have yielded intriguing information about perceived advantages and disadvantages of CLIL, about its implications for classroom practice, and about instructors’ attitude towards teacher training, which echo findings from similar investigations in European contexts. Finally, the results of the macro-analysis and the case study are compared and contrasted with findings from European research on ICLHE/CLIL to determine differences and similarities with the British context, a set of recommendations is made regarding CLIL practice at the case study institution, and some implications these indings may have for the future of CLIL in British higher education are discussed.

An analysis and comparison of commonly available United Kingdom prescribing resources

Background and objective: Safe prescribing requires accurate and practical information about drugs. Our objective was to measure the utility of current sources of prescribing guidance when used to inform practical prescribing decisions, and to compare current sources of prescribing guidance in the UK with idealized prescribing guidance. Methods: We developed 25 clinical scenarios. Two independent assessors rated and ranked the performance of five common sources of prescribing guidance in the UK when used to answer the clinical scenarios. A third adjudicator facilitated review of any disparities. An idealized list of contents for prescribing guidance was developed and sent for comments to academics and users of prescribing guidance. Following consultation an operational check was used to assess compliance with the idealized criteria. The main outcome measures were relative utility in answering the clinical scenarios and compliance with the idealized prescribing guidance. Results: Current sources of prescribing guidance used in the UK differ in their utility, when measured using clinical scenarios. The British National Formulary (BNF) and EMIS LV were the best performing sources in terms of both ranking [mean rank 1·24 and 2·20] and rating [%excellent or adequate 100% and 72%]. Current sources differed in the extent to which they fulfilled criteria for ideal prescribing guidance, but the BNF, and EMIS LV to a lesser extent, closely matched the criteria. Discussion: We have demonstrated how clinical scenarios can be used to assess prescribing guidance resources. Producers of prescribing guidance documents should consider our idealized template. Prescribers require high-quality information to support their practice. Conclusion: Our test was helpful in distinguishing between prescribing resources. Producers of prescribing guidance should consider the utility of their products to end-users, particularly in those more complex areas where prescribers may need most support. Existing UK prescribing guidance resources differ in their ability to provide assistance to prescribers. © 2010 Blackwell Publishing Ltd.

Indication strength of coenological similarity patterns based on genus-level taxon lists and prevalence distribution

Several methods and indicators can be used to evaluate the coenological state of a given habitat, the ones which can be created simply, quickly, standardizably and reliably and which can be used to exactly quantify the state of a given habitat in point of numbers can be of outstanding practical importance in ecology. One possible method is the examination of the genera which can be found in a given habitat in great abundance and have little number of species and various ecological characteristics. For this purpose one of the most appropriate groups is that of ground-dwelling oribatid mites (Acari: Oribatida). In our research, joining the bioindication methodological project of the “Adaptation to Climate Change” Research Group of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences, the indication strength of genus-level taxon lists and the effects of the main pattern-generating factors creating similarity patterns were analysed with the help of data series on oribatid mites collected by us and originating from literature. Our aim was to develop a method with the help of which the difference expressed with distance functions between two oribatid mite genus lists originating from any sources can correspond to spatial and temporal scales. Our results prove that these genus lists are able to express the spatial distance of the habitats. With the help of this base of comparison changes in disturbed or transformed habitats can be expressed by means of oribatid mite communities, with spatial and temporal distances.

What secondary English to speakers of other languages (ESOL) teachers know about social and academic language and instructional strategies for limited English proficient students

The purpose of this study was to examine what secondary English to Speakers of Other Languages (ESOL) teachers understand about social and academic language, what instructional strategies they use for Limited English Proficient (LEP) students, and how these concepts are operationalized in their daily practice. ^ This was a mixed method study incorporating both quantitative and qualitative data collection and interpretation. Written questionnaires and individual interviews addressed the questions on teachers' definitions of social and academic language and their strategy use. Classroom observations provided verification of their definitions and their descriptions of instruction for academic language. ^ Findings indicated that teachers' definitions of social and academic language were still developing and that there were ambiguities in identifying examples of social and academic language. The use of graphic organizers or visual supports, groups or peer partners, role play or drama, and modeling were the strategies teachers consistently listed for beginner, intermediate, advanced and multiple level classes. Additionally, teachers' descriptions of their instruction were congruent with what was observed in their classroom practice. ^ It appeared that this population of secondary ESOL teachers was in the process of evolving their definitions of social and academic language and were at different stages in this evolution. Teachers' definitions of language influenced their instruction. Furthermore, those who had clear constructs of language were able to operationalize them in their classroom instruction. ^

The relationship between alkaloid-based chemical defenses and diet in dendrobatid poison frogs

Chemical defenses are common among organisms and represent some of the most complex adaptations for avoiding predation, yet our understanding of the ecological nature of these systems remains incomplete. Poison frogs are a group of chemically defended organisms that are dependent entirely on diet for chemical defense. In this study, I identified the dietary arthropods responsible for chemical defense in poison frogs, described spatial and temporal patterns in alkaloid composition of poison frogs, and established links between patterns of variation in alkaloid defense and arthropod diet in poison frogs. Identifying dietary sources and studying patterns of variation in alkaloid composition is fundamental to understanding the ecology and evolution of chemical defense in poison frogs. ^ The dendrobatid poison frog Oophaga pumilio shares many alkaloids in common with other poison frogs and is known to vary in alkaloid composition throughout its geographic range. I designed my dissertation to take advantage of these characteristics and use O. pumilio as a model species for the study of chemical defense in poison frogs. Here, I identified siphonotid millipedes as a source for spiropyrrolizidine alkaloids, formicine ants as a source for pumiliotoxin alkaloids, and oribatid mites as dietary sources for the majority of alkaloids found in poison frogs. I found that alkaloid composition varied spatially and temporally, on both small and large scales, within and among populations of O. pumilio. Alkaloid variation between populations was related to geographic distance, and closer populations tended to have alkaloid compositions more similar to each other than to distant populations. ^ The findings of my study suggest that oribatid mites are the most important dietary source of alkaloids in poison frogs. However, overall alkaloid defense in poison frogs is based on a combination of dietary arthropods, including mites, ants, millipedes, and beetles. Variation in chemical defenses of poison frogs is due to (1) spatial and temporal differences in the presence of alkaloids in certain arthropods and (2) differences in the availability of certain alkaloid-containing arthropods, which are likely the result of differences as well as successional changes in forest structure among locations and through time. ^

Aerodynamic load characteristics evaluation and tri-axial performance testing on fiber reinforced polymer connections and metal fasteners to promote hurricane damage mitigation

Damages during extreme wind events highlight the weaknesses of mechanical fasteners at the roof-to-wall connections in residential timber frame buildings. The allowable capacity of the metal fasteners is based on results of unidirectional component testing that do not simulate realistic tri-axial aerodynamic loading effects. The first objective of this research was to simulate hurricane effects and study hurricane-structure interaction at full-scale, facilitating better understanding of the combined impacts of wind, rain, and debris on inter-component connections at spatial and temporal scales. The second objective was to evaluate the performance of a non-intrusive roof-to-wall connection system using fiber reinforced polymer (FRP) materials and compare its load capacity to the capacity of an existing metal fastener under simulated aerodynamic loads. ^ The Wall of Wind (WoW) testing performed using FRP connections on a one-story gable-roof timber structure instrumented with a variety of sensors, was used to create a database on aerodynamic and aero-hydrodynamic loading on roof-to-wall connections tested under several parameters: angles of attack, wind-turbulence content, internal pressure conditions, with and without effects of rain. Based on the aerodynamic loading results obtained from WoW tests, sets of three force components (tri-axial mean loads) were combined into a series of resultant mean forces, which were used to test the FRP and metal connections in the structures laboratory up to failure. A new component testing system and test protocol were developed for testing fasteners under simulated triaxial loading as opposed to uni-axial loading. The tri-axial and uni-axial test results were compared for hurricane clips. Also, comparison was made between tri-axial load capacity of FRP and metal connections. ^ The research findings demonstrate that the FRP connection is a viable option for use in timber roof-to-wall connection system. Findings also confirm that current testing methods of mechanical fasteners tend to overestimate the actual load capacities of a connector. Additionally, the research also contributes to the development a new testing protocol for fasteners using tri-axial simultaneous loads based on the aerodynamic database obtained from the WoW testing. ^

The relationship between spirituality, knowledge and tuberculosis (TB) medication adherence among African Americans and Haitians

Tuberculosis (TB) is an infectious disease and nonadherence to medication can lead to new cases, multi-drug resistant TB, or potential death. Additionally, healthcare professionals and individuals with TB’s knowledge of the disease and medication adherence are crucial for successful completion of medication therapy. Patient education is one of the most important aspects of care provided in healthcare settings (CDC, 1994). TB tends to disproportionately affect minority and economically disadvantaged patient populations. The purpose of this mixed method study was to explore the relationship between spirituality, knowledge, and TB medication adherence among African Americans and Haitians. The primary research question was: What is the relationship between spirituality, knowledge and TB medication adherence among African Americans and Haitians? Quantitative data were gathered from 33 questionnaires and analyzed by two ANOVAs and four chi square analyses. The null hypothesis was not rejected; there was not a statistically significant relationship between spirituality and TB medication adherence (p =.208) among the study’s African Americans and Haitians. Qualitative data concerning participants’ knowledge of TB, gathered from 16 individual interviews further informed this analysis. Secondary research questions examined the role of spirituality, knowledge of TB and medication adherence among African Americans and Haitians. Four common themes emerged across both groups to answer the secondary research questions. Interviews revealed the themes: (a) God is in control, (b) stigmatization of TB, (c) lack of knowledge, and (d) fear of death. The theme lack of knowledge about TB was found to contribute to stigmatization of TB patients. However, in this study stigma and lack of knowledge were related to initial denial of symptoms and delayed diagnosis, but not found to be related to TB medication adherence. This study could help adult educators and health educators enhance their educational interventions, develop a better understanding of adult learning, resulting in early diagnosis and treatment ultimately decreasing transmission of TB, drug resistance, and potential death. Educators should be aware that TB patients’ spirituality may be an important part of how they cope with having TB. A larger scale study, conducted at multiple locations should be conducted to extend the findings of this small scale exploratory study. Further studies should be done to better determine what patient, healthcare provider and health care system factors might mediate relationships that may exist between lack of knowledge of TB, stigma and TB medication adherence.

Characterization, sources, and transformations of dissolved organic matter (DOM) in Florida coastal Everglades (FCE)

Dissolved organic matter (DOM) is one of the largest carbon reservoirs on this planet and is present in aquatic environments as a highly complex mixture of organic compounds. The Florida coastal Everglades (FCE) is one of the largest wetlands in the world. DOM in this system is an important biogeochemical component as most of the nitrogen (N) and phosphorous (P) are in organic forms. Achieving a better understanding of DOM dynamics in large coastal wetlands is critical, and a particularly important issue in the context of Everglades restoration. In this work, the environmental dynamics of surface water DOM on spatial and temporal scales was investigated. In addition, photo- and bio-reactivity of this DOM was determined, surface-to-groundwater exchange of DOM was investigated, and the size distribution of freshwater DOM in Everglades was assessed. The data show that DOM dynamics in this ecosystem are controlled by both hydrological and ecological drivers and are clearly different on spatial scales and variable seasonally. The DOM reactivity data, modeled with a multi-pool first order degradation kinetics model, found that fluorescent DOM in FCE is generally photo-reactive and bio-refractory. Yet the sequential degradation proved a “priming effect” of sunlight on the bacterial uptake and reworking of this subtropical wetland DOM. Interestingly, specific PARAFAC components were found to have different photo- and bio-degradation rates, suggesting a highly heterogeneous nature of fluorophores associated with the DOM. Surface-to-groundwater exchange of DOM was observed in different regions of the system, and compositional differences were associated with source and photo-reactivity. Lastly, the high degree of heterogeneity of DOM associated fluorophores suggested based on the degradation studies was confirmed through the EEM-PARAFAC analysis of DOM along a molecular size continuum, suggesting that the fluorescence characteristics of DOM are highly controlled by different size fractions and as such can exhibit significant differences in reactivity.

Local biomass control on the composition and reactivity of particulate organic matter in aquatic environments

Freshwater ecosystems have been recognized as important components of the global carbon cycle, and the flux of organic matter (OM) from freshwater to marine environments can significantly affect estuarine and coastal productivity. The focus of this study was the assessment of carbon dynamics in two aquatic environments, namely the Florida Everglades and small prairie streams in Kansas, with the aim of characterizing the biogeochemistry of OM. In the Everglades, particulate OM (POM) is mostly found as a layer of flocculent material (floc). While floc is believed to be the main energy source driving trophic dynamics in this oligotrophic wetland, not much is known about its biogeochemistry. The objective of this study was to determine the origin/sources of OM in floc using biomarkers and pigment-based chemotaxonomy to assess specific biomass contributions to this material, on a spatial (freshwater marshes vs. mangrove fringe) and seasonal (wet vs. dry) scales. It was found that floc OM is derived from the local vegetation (mainly algal components and macrophyte litter) and its composition is controlled by seasonal drivers of hydrology and local biomass productivity. Photo-reactivity experiments showed that light exposure on floc resulted in photo-dissolution of POC with the generation of significant amounts of both dissolved OM (DOM) and nutrients (N & P), potentially influencing nutrient dynamics in this ecosystem. The bio-reactivity experiments determined as the amount and rate of CO2 evolution during incubation were found to vary on seasonal and spatial scales and were highly influenced by phosphorus limitation. Not much is known on OM dynamics in small headwater streams. The objective of this study was to determine carbon dynamics in sediments from intermittent prairie streams, characterized by different vegetation cover for their watershed (C4 grasses) vs. riparian zone (C3 plants). In this study sedimentary OM was characterized using a biomarker and compound specific carbon stable isotope approach. It was found that the biomarker composition of these sediments is dominated by higher plant inputs from the riparian zone, although inputs from adjacent prairie grasses were also apparent. Conflicting to some extent with the River Continuum Concept, sediments of the upper reaches contained more degraded OM, while the lower reaches were enriched in fresh material deriving from higher plants and plankton sources as a result of hydrological regimes and particle sorting.

An assessment of natural and human disturbance effects on Mexican ecosystems: current trends and research gaps

Mexico harbors more than 10% of the planet’s endemic species. However, the integrity and biodiversity of many ecosystems is experiencing rapid transformation under the influence of a wide array of human and natural disturbances. In order to disentangle the effects of human and natural disturbance regimes at different spatial and temporal scales, we selected six terrestrial (temperate montane forests, montane cloud forests, tropical rain forests, tropical semi-deciduous forests, tropical dry forests, and deserts) and four aquatic (coral reefs, mangrove forests, kelp forests and saline lakes) ecosystems. We used semiquantitative statistical methods to assess (1) the most important agents of disturbance affecting the ecosystems, (2) the vulnerability of each ecosystem to anthropogenic and natural disturbance, and (3) the differences in ecosystem disturbance regimes and their resilience. Our analysis indicates a significant variation in ecological responses, recovery capacity, and resilience among ecosystems. The constant and widespread presence of human impacts on both terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems is reflected either in reduced area coverage for most systems, or reduced productivity and biodiversity, particularly in the case of fragile ecosystems (e.g., rain forests, coral reefs). In all cases, the interaction between historical human impacts and episodic high intensity natural disturbance (e.g., hurricanes, fires) has triggered a reduction in species diversity and induced significant changes in habitat distribution or species dominance. The lack of monitoring programs assessing before/after effects of major disturbances in Mexico is one of the major limitations to quantifying the commonalities and differences of disturbance effects on ecosystem properties.

Patterns and ecosystem consequences of shark declines in the ocean

Whereas many land predators disappeared before their ecological roles were studied, the decline of marine apex predators is still unfolding. Large sharks in particular have experienced rapid declines over the last decades. In this study, we review the documented changes in exploited elasmobranch communities in coastal, demersal, and pelagic habitats, and synthesize the effects of sharks on their prey and wider communities. We show that the high natural diversity and abundance of sharks is vulnerable to even light fishing pressure. The decline of large predatory sharks reduces natural mortality in a range of prey, contributing to changes in abundance, distribution, and behaviour of small elasmobranchs, marine mammals, and sea turtles that have few other predators. Through direct predation and behavioural modifications, top-down effects of sharks have led to cascading changes in some coastal ecosystems. In demersal and pelagic communities, there is increasing evidence of mesopredator release, but cascading effects are more hypothetical. Here, fishing pressure on mesopredators may mask or even reverse some ecosystem effects. In conclusion, large sharks can exert strong top-down forces with the potential to shape marine communities over large spatial and temporal scales. Yet more empirical evidence is needed to test the generality of these effects throughout the ocean.

Derivation of lake mixing and stratification indices from high-resolution lake buoy data

Lake Analyzer is a numerical code coupled with supporting visualization tools for determining indices of mixing and stratification that are critical to the biogeochemical cycles of lakes and reservoirs. Stability indices, including Lake Number, Wedderburn Number, Schmidt Stability, and thermocline depth are calculated according to established literature definitions and returned to the user in a time series format. The program was created for the analysis of high-frequency data collected from instrumented lake buoys, in support of the emerging field of aquatic sensor network science. Available outputs for the Lake Analyzer program are: water temperature (error-checked and/or down-sampled), wind speed (error-checked and/or down-sampled), metalimnion extent (top and bottom), thermocline depth, friction velocity, Lake Number, Wedderburn Number, Schmidt Stability, mode-1 vertical seiche period, and Brunt-Väisälä buoyancy frequency. Secondary outputs for several of these indices delineate the parent thermocline depth (seasonal thermocline) from the shallower secondary or diurnal thermocline. Lake Analyzer provides a program suite and best practices for the comparison of mixing and stratification indices in lakes across gradients of climate, hydro-physiography, and time, and enables a more detailed understanding of the resulting biogeochemical transformations at different spatial and temporal scales.

African History and Identity: A Case Study of Black British Students in London

Through the administration of questionnaires and interviews in six of London’s secondary schools, this case study seeks to investigate Black Britons’ self-concepts and attitudes toward curricular depictions of continental and diasporan Africans and the extent to which the African Union’s (A.U.) Pan-African outreach agenda may be advanced or challenged.

Spatial and Temporal Variability of Dissolved Organic Matter Quantity and Composition in an Oilgotrophic Subtropical Coastal Wetland

Dissolved organic matter (DOM) is an essential component of the carbon cycle and a critical driver in controlling variety of biogeochemical and ecological processes in wetlands. The quality of this DOM as it relates to composition and reactivity is directly related to its sources and may vary on temporal and spatial scales. However, large scale, long-term studies of DOM dynamics in wetlands are still scarce in the literature. Here we present a multi-year DOM characterization study for monthly surface water samples collected at 14 sampling stations along two transects within the greater Everglades, a subtropical, oligotrophic, coastal freshwater wetland-mangrove-estuarine ecosystem. In an attempt to assess quantitative and qualitative variations of DOM on both spatial and temporal scales, we determined dissolved organic carbon (DOC) values and DOM optical properties, respectively. DOM quality was assessed using, excitation emission matrix (EEM) fluorescence coupled with parallel factor analysis (PARAFAC). Variations of the PARAFAC components abundance and composition were clearly observed on spatial and seasonal scales. Dry versus wet season DOC concentrations were affected by dry-down and re-wetting processes in the freshwater marshes, while DOM compositional features were controlled by soil and higher plant versus periphyton sources respectively. Peat-soil based freshwater marsh sites could be clearly differentiated from marl-soil based sites based on EEM–PARAFAC data. Freshwater marsh DOM was enriched in higher plant and soil-derived humic-like compounds, compared to estuarine sites which were more controlled by algae- and microbial-derived inputs. DOM from fringe mangrove sites could be differentiated between tidally influenced sites and sites exposed to long inundation periods. As such coastal estuarine sites were significantly controlled by hydrology, while DOM dynamics in Florida Bay were seasonally driven by both primary productivity and hydrology. This study exemplifies the application of long term optical properties monitoring as an effective technique to investigate DOM dynamics in aquatic ecosystems. The work presented here also serves as a pre-restoration condition dataset for DOM in the context of the Comprehensive Everglades Restoration Plan (CERP).