Hydrodynamic forces on heave plates for offshore systems oscillating close to the seabed or the free surface

La energía eólica marina es uno de los recursos energéticos con mayor proyección pudiendo contribuir a reducir el consumo de combustibles fósiles y a cubrir la demanda de energía en todo el mundo. El concepto de aerogenerador marino está basado en estructuras fijas como jackets o en plataformas flotantes, ya sea una semisumergible o una TLP. Se espera que la energía eólica offshore juegue un papel importante en el perfil de producción energética de los próximos años; por tanto, las turbinas eólicas deben hacerse más fables y rentables para ser competitivas frente a otras fuentes de energía. Las estructuras flotantes pueden experimentar movimientos resonantes en estados de la mar con largos períodos de oleaje. Estos movimientos disminuyen su operatividad y pueden causar daños en los componentes eléctricos de las turbinas y en las palas, también en los risers y moorings. La respuesta de la componente vertical del movimiento puede reducirse mediante diferentes actuaciones: (1) aumentando la amortiguación del sistema, (2) manteniendo el período del movimiento vertical fuera del rango de la energía de la ola, y (3) reduciendo las fuerzas de excitación verticales. Un ejemplo típico para llevar a cabo esta reducción son las "Heave Plates". Las heave plates son placas que se utilizan en la industria offshore debido a sus características hidrodinámicas, ya que aumentan la masa añadida y la amortiguación del sistema. En un análisis hidrodinámico convencional, se considera una estructura sometida a un oleaje con determinadas características y se evalúan las cargas lineales usando la teoría potencial. El amortiguamiento viscoso, que juega un papel crucial en la respuesta en resonancia del sistema, es un dato de entrada para el análisis. La tesis se centra principalmente en la predicción del amortiguamiento viscoso y de la masa añadida de las heave plates usadas en las turbinas eólicas flotantes. En los cálculos, las fuerzas hidrodinámicas se han obtenido con el f n de estudiar cómo los coeficientes hidrodinámicos de masa añadida5 y amortiguamiento varían con el número de KC, que caracteriza la amplitud del movimiento respecto al diámetro del disco. Por otra parte, se ha investigado la influencia de la distancia media de la ‘heave plate’ a la superficie libre o al fondo del mar, sobre los coeficientes hidrodinámicos. En este proceso, un nuevo modelo que describe el trabajo realizado por la amortiguación en función de la enstrofía, es descrito en el presente documento. Este nuevo enfoque es capaz de proporcionar una correlación directa entre el desprendimiento local de vorticidad y la fuerza de amortiguación global. El análisis también incluye el estudio de los efectos de la geometría de la heave plate, y examina la sensibilidad de los coeficientes hidrodinámicos al incluir porosidad en ésta. Un diseño novedoso de una heave plate, basado en la teoría fractal, también fue analizado experimentalmente y comparado con datos experimentales obtenidos por otros autores. Para la resolución de las ecuaciones de Navier Stokes se ha usado un solver basado en el método de volúmenes finitos. El solver usa las librerías de OpenFOAM (Open source Field Operation And Manipulation), para resolver un problema multifásico e incompresible, usando la técnica VOF (volume of fluid) que permite capturar el movimiento de la superficie libre. Los resultados numéricos han sido comparados con resultados experimentales llevados a cabo en el Canal del Ensayos Hidrodinámicos (CEHINAV) de la Universidad Politécnica de Madrid y en el Canal de Experiencias Hidrodinámicas (CEHIPAR) en Madrid, al igual que con otros experimentos realizados en la Escuela de Ingeniería Mecánica de la Universidad de Western Australia. Los principales resultados se presentan a continuación: 1. Para pequeños valores de KC, los coeficientes hidrodinámicos de masa añadida y amortiguamiento incrementan su valor a medida que el disco se aproxima al fondo marino. Para los casos cuando el disco oscila cerca de la superficie libre, la dependencia de los coeficientes hidrodinámicos es más fuerte por la influencia del movimiento de la superficie libre. 2. Los casos analizados muestran la existencia de un valor crítico de KC, donde la tendencia de los coeficientes hidrodinámicos se ve alterada. Dicho valor crítico depende de la distancia al fondo marino o a la superficie libre. 3. El comportamiento físico del flujo, para valores de KC cercanos a su valor crítico ha sido estudiado mediante el análisis del campo de vorticidad. 4. Introducir porosidad al disco, reduce la masa añadida para los valores de KC estudiados, pero se ha encontrado que la porosidad incrementa el valor del coeficiente de amortiguamiento cuando se incrementa la amplitud del movimiento, logrando un máximo de damping para un disco con 10% de porosidad. 5. Los resultados numéricos y experimentales para los discos con faldón, muestran que usar este tipo de geometrías incrementa la masa añadida cuando se compara con el disco sólido, pero reduce considerablemente el coeficiente de amortiguamiento. 6. Un diseño novedoso de heave plate basado en la teoría fractal ha sido experimentalmente estudiado a diferentes calados y comparado con datos experimentales obtenidos por otro autores. Los resultados muestran un comportamiento incierto de los coeficientes y por tanto este diseño debería ser estudiado más a fondo. ABSTRACT Offshore wind energy is one of the promising resources which can reduce the fossil fuel energy consumption and cover worldwide energy demands. Offshore wind turbine concepts are based on either a fixed structure as a jacket or a floating offshore platform like a semisubmersible, spar or tension leg platform. Floating offshore wind turbines have the potential to be an important part of the energy production profile in the coming years. In order to accomplish this wind integration, these wind turbines need to be made more reliable and cost efficient to be competitive with other sources of energy. Floating offshore artifacts, such oil rings and wind turbines, may experience resonant heave motions in sea states with long peak periods. These heave resonances may increase the system downtime and cause damage on the system components and as well as on risers and mooring systems. The heave resonant response may be reduced by different means: (1) increasing the damping of the system, (2) keeping the natural heave period outside the range of the wave energy, and (3) reducing the heave excitation forces. A typical example to accomplish this reduction are “Heave Plates”. Heave plates are used in the offshore industry due to their hydrodynamic characteristics, i.e., increased added mass and damping. Conventional offshore hydrodynamic analysis considers a structure in waves, and evaluates the linear and nonlinear loads using potential theory. Viscous damping, which is expected to play a crucial role in the resonant response, is an empirical input to the analysis, and is not explicitly calculated. The present research has been mainly focused on the prediction of viscous damping and added mass of floating offshore wind turbine heave plates. In the calculations, the hydrodynamic forces have been measured in order to compute how the hydrodynamic coefficients of added mass1 and damping vary with the KC number, which characterises the amplitude of heave motion relative to the diameter of the disc. In addition, the influence on the hydrodynamic coefficients when the heave plate is oscillating close to the free surface or the seabed has been investigated. In this process, a new model describing the work done by damping in terms of the flow enstrophy, is described herein. This new approach is able to provide a direct correlation between the local vortex shedding processes and the global damping force. The analysis also includes the study of different edges geometry, and examines the sensitivity of the damping and added mass coefficients to the porosity of the plate. A novel porous heave plate based on fractal theory has also been proposed, tested experimentally and compared with experimental data obtained by other authors for plates with similar porosity. A numerical solver of Navier Stokes equations, based on the finite volume technique has been applied. It uses the open-source libraries of OpenFOAM (Open source Field Operation And Manipulation), to solve 2 incompressible, isothermal immiscible fluids using a VOF (volume of fluid) phase-fraction based interface capturing approach, with optional mesh motion and mesh topology changes including adaptive re-meshing. Numerical results have been compared with experiments conducted at Technical University of Madrid (CEHINAV) and CEHIPAR model basins in Madrid and with others performed at School of Mechanical Engineering in The University of Western Australia. A brief summary of main results are presented below: 1. At low KC numbers, a systematic increase in added mass and damping, corresponding to an increase in the seabed proximity, is observed. Specifically, for the cases when the heave plate is oscillating closer to the free surface, the dependence of the hydrodynamic coefficients is strongly influenced by the free surface. 2. As seen in experiments, a critical KC, where the linear trend of the hydrodynamic coefficients with KC is disrupted and that depends on the seabed or free surface distance, has been found. 3. The physical behavior of the flow around the critical KC has been explained through an analysis of the flow vorticity field. 4. The porosity of the heave plates reduces the added mass for the studied porosity at all KC numbers, but the porous heave plates are found to increase the damping coefficient with increasing amplitude of oscillation, achieving a maximum damping coefficient for the heave plate with 10% porosity in the entire KC range. 5. Another concept taken into account in this work has been the heave plates with flaps. Numerical and experimental results show that using discs with flaps will increase added mass when compared to the plain plate but may also significantly reduce damping. 6. A novel heave plate design based on fractal theory has tested experimentally for different submergences and compared with experimental data obtained by other authors for porous plates. Results show an unclear behavior in the coefficients and should be studied further. Future work is necessary in order to address a series of open questions focusing on 3D effects, optimization of the heave plates shapes, etc.

Engineering privacy requirements valuable lessons from another realm

The Privacy by Design approach to systems engineering introduces privacy requirements in the early stages of development, instead of patching up a built system afterwards. However, 'vague', 'disconnected from technology', or 'aspirational' are some terms employed nowadays to refer to the privacy principles which must lead the development process. Although privacy has become a first-class citizen in the realm of non-functional requirements and some methodological frameworks help developers by providing design guidance, software engineers often miss a solid reference detailing which specific, technical requirements they must abide by, and a systematic methodology to follow. In this position paper, we look into a domain that has already successfully tackled these problems -web accessibility-, and propose translating their findings into the realm of privacy requirements engineering, analyzing as well the gaps not yet covered by current privacy initiatives.

Assessment for English language education on the programs at the Agricultural Engineering School of Madrid

The convergence process among European academic degrees pursues the exchange of graduate students and the adaptation of university programs to social demand. Within the framework of the European Higher Education, European universities will need to be more competitive not only by increasing or maintaining the student enrolment, but also in their academic performance. Thus, the reinforcing of English language education within the University Programs might play an important role to reach these objectives. In this sense, a complete survey was accomplished at the Agricultural Egineering School of Madrid (ETSIA ) addressing issues such as: identification the needs for bilingual instruction at ETSIA, identification resources needed and interest and background in English language of students and professors (San José et al., 2013). The conclusions and recommendations to promote the bilingual instruction in the ETSIA, taking into account the approaches followed by other Spanish universities, are presented in this work.

Engineering Computational Emotion - A Reference Model for Emotion in Artificial Systems

Emotion is generally argued to be an influence on the behavior of life systems, largely concerning flexibility and adaptivity. The way in which life systems acts in response to a particular situations of the environment, has revealed the decisive and crucial importance of this feature in the success of behaviors. And this source of inspiration has influenced the way of thinking artificial systems. During the last decades, artificial systems have undergone such an evolution that each day more are integrated in our daily life. They have become greater in complexity, and the subsequent effects are related to an increased demand of systems that ensure resilience, robustness, availability, security or safety among others. All of them questions that raise quite a fundamental challenges in control design. This thesis has been developed under the framework of the Autonomous System project, a.k.a the ASys-Project. Short-term objectives of immediate application are focused on to design improved systems, and the approaching of intelligence in control strategies. Besides this, long-term objectives underlying ASys-Project concentrate on high order capabilities such as cognition, awareness and autonomy. This thesis is placed within the general fields of Engineery and Emotion science, and provides a theoretical foundation for engineering and designing computational emotion for artificial systems. The starting question that has grounded this thesis aims the problem of emotion--based autonomy. And how to feedback systems with valuable meaning has conformed the general objective. Both the starting question and the general objective, have underlaid the study of emotion, the influence on systems behavior, the key foundations that justify this feature in life systems, how emotion is integrated within the normal operation, and how this entire problem of emotion can be explained in artificial systems. By assuming essential differences concerning structure, purpose and operation between life and artificial systems, the essential motivation has been the exploration of what emotion solves in nature to afterwards analyze analogies for man--made systems. This work provides a reference model in which a collection of entities, relationships, models, functions and informational artifacts, are all interacting to provide the system with non-explicit knowledge under the form of emotion-like relevances. This solution aims to provide a reference model under which to design solutions for emotional operation, but related to the real needs of artificial systems. The proposal consists of a multi-purpose architecture that implement two broad modules in order to attend: (a) the range of processes related to the environment affectation, and (b) the range or processes related to the emotion perception-like and the higher levels of reasoning. This has required an intense and critical analysis beyond the state of the art around the most relevant theories of emotion and technical systems, in order to obtain the required support for those foundations that sustain each model. The problem has been interpreted and is described on the basis of AGSys, an agent assumed with the minimum rationality as to provide the capability to perform emotional assessment. AGSys is a conceptualization of a Model-based Cognitive agent that embodies an inner agent ESys, the responsible of performing the emotional operation inside of AGSys. The solution consists of multiple computational modules working federated, and aimed at conforming a mutual feedback loop between AGSys and ESys. Throughout this solution, the environment and the effects that might influence over the system are described as different problems. While AGSys operates as a common system within the external environment, ESys is designed to operate within a conceptualized inner environment. And this inner environment is built on the basis of those relevances that might occur inside of AGSys in the interaction with the external environment. This allows for a high-quality separate reasoning concerning mission goals defined in AGSys, and emotional goals defined in ESys. This way, it is provided a possible path for high-level reasoning under the influence of goals congruence. High-level reasoning model uses knowledge about emotional goals stability, letting this way new directions in which mission goals might be assessed under the situational state of this stability. This high-level reasoning is grounded by the work of MEP, a model of emotion perception that is thought as an analogy of a well-known theory in emotion science. The work of this model is described under the operation of a recursive-like process labeled as R-Loop, together with a system of emotional goals that are assumed as individual agents. This way, AGSys integrates knowledge that concerns the relation between a perceived object, and the effect which this perception induces on the situational state of the emotional goals. This knowledge enables a high-order system of information that provides the sustain for a high-level reasoning. The extent to which this reasoning might be approached is just delineated and assumed as future work. This thesis has been studied beyond a long range of fields of knowledge. This knowledge can be structured into two main objectives: (a) the fields of psychology, cognitive science, neurology and biological sciences in order to obtain understanding concerning the problem of the emotional phenomena, and (b) a large amount of computer science branches such as Autonomic Computing (AC), Self-adaptive software, Self-X systems, Model Integrated Computing (MIC) or the paradigm of models@runtime among others, in order to obtain knowledge about tools for designing each part of the solution. The final approach has been mainly performed on the basis of the entire acquired knowledge, and described under the fields of Artificial Intelligence, Model-Based Systems (MBS), and additional mathematical formalizations to provide punctual understanding in those cases that it has been required. This approach describes a reference model to feedback systems with valuable meaning, allowing for reasoning with regard to (a) the relationship between the environment and the relevance of the effects on the system, and (b) dynamical evaluations concerning the inner situational state of the system as a result of those effects. And this reasoning provides a framework of distinguishable states of AGSys derived from its own circumstances, that can be assumed as artificial emotion.

Desarrollo de un Procedimiento Basado en Algoritmos de Optimización para el Dimensionado de Absorbedores Puntuales Aplicados a la Conversión de Energía Undimotriz

La energía transportada por el oleaje a través de los océanos (energía undimotriz) se enmarca dentro de las denominadas energías oceánicas. Su aprovechamiento para generar energía eléctrica (o ser aprovechada de alguna otra forma) es una idea reflejada ya hace más de dos siglos en una patente (1799). Desde entonces, y con especial intensidad desde los años 70, ha venido despertando el interés de instituciones ligadas al I+D+i y empresas del sector energético y tecnológico, debido principalmente a la magnitud del recurso disponible. Actualmente se puede considerar al sector en un estado precomercial, con un amplio rango de dispositivos y tecnologías en diferente grado de desarrollo en los que ninguno destaca sobre los otros (ni ha demostrado su viabilidad económica), y sin que se aprecie una tendencia a converger un único dispositivo (o un número reducido de ellos). El recurso energético que se está tratando de aprovechar, pese a compartir la característica de no-controlabilidad con otras fuentes de energía renovable como la eólica o la solar, presenta una variabilidad adicional. De esta manera, diferentes localizaciones, pese a poder presentar recursos de contenido energético similar, presentan oleajes de características muy diferentes en términos de alturas y periodos de oleaje, y en la dispersión estadística de estos valores. Esta variabilidad en el oleaje hace que cobre especial relevancia la adecuación de los dispositivos de aprovechamiento de energía undimotriz (WEC: Wave Energy Converter) a su localización, de cara a mejorar su viabilidad económica. Parece razonable suponer que, en un futuro, el proceso de diseño de un parque de generación undimotriz implique un rediseño (en base a una tecnología conocida) para cada proyecto de implantación en una nueva localización. El objetivo de esta tesis es plantear un procedimiento de dimensionado de una tecnología de aprovechamiento de la energía undimotriz concreta: los absorbedores puntuales. Dicha metodología de diseño se plantea como un problema de optimización matemático, el cual se resuelve utilizando un algoritmo de optimización bioinspirado: evolución diferencial. Este planteamiento permite automatizar la fase previa de dimensionado implementando la metodología en un código de programación. El proceso de diseño de un WEC es un problema de ingería complejo, por lo que no considera factible el planteamiento de un diseño completo mediante un único procedimiento de optimización matemático. En vez de eso, se platea el proceso de diseño en diferentes etapas, de manera que la metodología desarrollada en esta tesis se utilice para obtener las dimensiones básicas de una solución de referencia de WEC, la cual será utilizada como punto de partida para continuar con las etapas posteriores del proceso de diseño. La metodología de dimensionado previo presentada en esta tesis parte de unas condiciones de contorno de diseño definidas previamente, tales como: localización, características del sistema de generación de energía eléctrica (PTO: Power Take-Off), estrategia de extracción de energía eléctrica y concepto concreto de WEC). Utilizando un algoritmo de evolución diferencial multi-objetivo se obtiene un conjunto de soluciones factibles (de acuerdo con una ciertas restricciones técnicas y dimensionales) y óptimas (de acuerdo con una serie de funciones objetivo de pseudo-coste y pseudo-beneficio). Dicho conjunto de soluciones o dimensiones de WEC es utilizado como caso de referencia en las posteriores etapas de diseño. En el documento de la tesis se presentan dos versiones de dicha metodología con dos modelos diferentes de evaluación de las soluciones candidatas. Por un lado, se presenta un modelo en el dominio de la frecuencia que presenta importantes simplificaciones en cuanto al tratamiento del recurso del oleaje. Este procedimiento presenta una menor carga computacional pero una mayor incertidumbre en los resultados, la cual puede traducirse en trabajo adicional en las etapas posteriores del proceso de diseño. Sin embargo, el uso de esta metodología resulta conveniente para realizar análisis paramétricos previos de las condiciones de contorno, tales como la localización seleccionada. Por otro lado, la segunda metodología propuesta utiliza modelos en el domino estocástico, lo que aumenta la carga computacional, pero permite obtener resultados con menos incertidumbre e información estadística muy útil para el proceso de diseño. Por este motivo, esta metodología es más adecuada para su uso en un proceso de dimensionado completo de un WEC. La metodología desarrollada durante la tesis ha sido utilizada en un proyecto industrial de evaluación energética preliminar de una planta de energía undimotriz. En dicho proceso de evaluación, el método de dimensionado previo fue utilizado en una primera etapa, de cara a obtener un conjunto de soluciones factibles de acuerdo con una serie de restricciones técnicas básicas. La selección y refinamiento de la geometría de la solución geométrica de WEC propuesta fue realizada a posteriori (por otros participantes del proyecto) utilizando un modelo detallado en el dominio del tiempo y un modelo de evaluación económica del dispositivo. El uso de esta metodología puede ayudar a reducir las iteraciones manuales y a mejorar los resultados obtenidos en estas últimas etapas del proyecto. ABSTRACT The energy transported by ocean waves (wave energy) is framed within the so-called oceanic energies. Its use to generate electric energy (or desalinate ocean water, etc.) is an idea expressed first time in a patent two centuries ago (1799). Ever since, but specially since the 1970’s, this energy has become interesting for R&D institutions and companies related with the technological and energetic sectors mainly because of the magnitude of available energy. Nowadays the development of this technology can be considered to be in a pre-commercial stage, with a wide range of devices and technologies developed to different degrees but with none standing out nor economically viable. Nor do these technologies seem ready to converge to a single device (or a reduce number of devices). The energy resource to be exploited shares its non-controllability with other renewable energy sources such as wind and solar. However, wave energy presents an additional short-term variability due to its oscillatory nature. Thus, different locations may show waves with similar energy content but different characteristics such as wave height or wave period. This variability in ocean waves makes it very important that the devices for harnessing wave energy (WEC: Wave Energy Converter) fit closely to the characteristics of their location in order to improve their economic viability. It seems reasonable to assume that, in the future, the process of designing a wave power plant will involve a re-design (based on a well-known technology) for each implementation project in any new location. The objective of this PhD thesis is to propose a dimensioning method for a specific wave-energy-harnessing technology: point absorbers. This design methodology is presented as a mathematical optimization problem solved by using an optimization bio-inspired algorithm: differential evolution. This approach allows automating the preliminary dimensioning stage by implementing the methodology in programmed code. The design process of a WEC is a complex engineering problem, so the complete design is not feasible using a single mathematical optimization procedure. Instead, the design process is proposed in different stages, so the methodology developed in this thesis is used for the basic dimensions of a reference solution of the WEC, which would be used as a starting point for the later stages of the design process. The preliminary dimensioning methodology presented in this thesis starts from some previously defined boundary conditions such as: location, power take-off (PTO) characteristic, strategy of energy extraction and specific WEC technology. Using a differential multi-objective evolutionary algorithm produces a set of feasible solutions (according to certain technical and dimensional constraints) and optimal solutions (according to a set of pseudo-cost and pseudo-benefit objective functions). This set of solutions or WEC dimensions are used as a reference case in subsequent stages of design. In the document of this thesis, two versions of this methodology with two different models of evaluation of candidate solutions are presented. On the one hand, a model in the frequency domain that has significant simplifications in the treatment of the wave resource is presented. This method implies a lower computational load but increased uncertainty in the results, which may lead to additional work in the later stages of the design process. However, use of this methodology is useful in order to perform previous parametric analysis of boundary conditions such as the selected location. On the other hand, the second method uses stochastic models, increasing the computational load, but providing results with smaller uncertainty and very useful statistical information for the design process. Therefore, this method is more suitable to be used in a detail design process for full dimensioning of the WEC. The methodology developed throughout the thesis has been used in an industrial project for preliminary energetic assessment of a wave energy power plant. In this assessment process, the method of previous dimensioning was used in the first stage, in order to obtain a set of feasible solutions according to a set of basic technical constraints. The geometry of the WEC was refined and selected subsequently (by other project participants) using a detailed model in the time domain and a model of economic evaluation of the device. Using this methodology can help to reduce the number of design iterations and to improve the results obtained in the last stages of the project.

Re-Ocupación y/o Re-Construcción de estructuras urbanas en desuso y su conexión con el espacio público y el paisaje

Los nuevos comportamientos urbanos nos permiten observar cada vez con más frecuencia en nuestras calles y plazas realidades que siempre habíamos considerado domésticas. Al contrario también pasa, todos los días vivimos en nuestras casas situaciones que implican relacionarnos con personas que no son de nuestro núcleo familiar. El diseño doméstico de nuestras ciudades y el urbanismo del diseño de interiores parecen herramientas oportunas en el mundo que nos ha tocado vivir. Esto nos lleva a pensar que los espacios públicos y privados son términos simplificados, definidos en base a conceptos de propiedad para organizar la ciudad. En cambio, sus usos y vivencias, su gestión y sus comportamientos se han complejizado, distorsionando la terminología convencional hasta hacerla obsoleta. En este contexto, considerado también el marco socioeconómico actual, surgen las “acciones de abajo a arriba” como nuevo paradigma o modelo de renovación urbana, que entienden la involucración del ciudadano como parte activa en el proceso de construcción de la urbe desde la misma gestación del proyecto, frente a las acciones habituales que consideran al usuario como mero receptor de las propuestas. Un ciudadano que parece estar cada vez más radicalizado y una administración que parece asustarse ante el desconcierto que el acercamiento al ciudadano puede acarrear, han ocasionado por un lado, espacios “gueto” de carácter casi anárquico y, por el otro lado, lugares tan institucionalizados que derivan en espacios asociados a la administración y ajenos al ciudadano. Por ello, se considera imprescindible la colaboración entre ambos poderes. De acuerdo con el discurso que precede, dentro de un marco comparativo, se estudian 5 supuestos seleccionados de las ciudades Madrid y Zaragoza. Madrid porque es referencia nacional e internacional en el desarrollo urbano a través de procesos ‘abajo arriba’. Zaragoza porque es una ciudad ‘media’ que históricamente no se ha definido por estrategias urbanas claras, ya sean de carácter social o institucional. Sin embargo, en el momento actual se pueden identificar planteamientos relacionados con la recuperación de construcciones y espacios vacantes que pueden ser determinantes a la hora de alcanzar equilibrios con los intensos procesos institucionales acaecidos en las dos últimas décadas. De los procesos urbanos registrados en cada lugar, desarrollados en construcciones y espacios vacantes, he seleccionado: Construcciones Vacantes Madrid |Tabacalera de Lavapiés Zaragoza | Antiguo I.E.S. Luis Buñuel y antiguo Convento de Mínimos Espacios Vacantes Madrid | Campo de Cebada [solar] Zaragoza | Patio ‘antiguo I.E.S. Luis Buñuel [espacio libre] y plaza Eduardo Ibarra [espacio libre] El proyecto de investigación ha partido de las hipótesis de partida que siguen: UNA… Las ‘acciones de abajo arriba’ o renovación desde abajo no tienen cabida como elementos urbanos aislados sino conectados entre sí, posibilitando la producción de sinergias y la construcción de la ciudad; pudiendo ser consideradas acciones de desarrollo y enlace urbano, pues su objetivo es convertirse en motores del espacio público. Cuestión que es aplicable al resto de los procesos o acciones urbanas [‘horizontales’ o ‘institucionales’] DOS… La capacidad de adaptación manifestada por las ‘acciones de abajo arriba’ implica un marco ideológico de referencia asociado a la importancia de la construcción con mínimos recursos [Re-ocupación y/o Re- Construcción de estructuras urbanas en desuso] en los procesos urbanos descritos, como vía para comprender los concepto sostenibilidad y calidad figurativa de lo construido. Cuestión que es aplicable a la recuperación de aquellos aspectos de la arquitectura que la convierten en necesaria para la sociedad. Y tiene como objetivo: Identificar modelos de sostenibilidad urbana como una estrategia que va de lo individual a lo colectivo y que se transmite fundamentalmente con la acción, mezclando la innovación y la tecnología en múltiples ámbitos, utilizando los recursos naturales e intelectuales de una manera eficiente y entendiendo la inteligencia humana y sobre todo la inteligencia colectiva, como principio y justificación. Se han analizado los siguientes aspectos: sociales [participación ciudadana e implicación de la administración pública], urbanos [conexiones con otros colectivos o espacios urbanos / transformaciones urbanas a través de los procesos de gestión utilizados], constructivos [materiales utilizados en la re-construcción de construcciones y espacios vacantes / sistemas constructivos utilizados] y los relacionados con la sostenibilidad [sostenibilidad económica / sostenibilidad de mantenimiento / sostenibilidad funcional / inteligencia colectiva] El estudio de los aspectos considerados se ha desarrollado con las herramientas metodológicas siguientes: Entrevistas abiertas a expertos: se han obtenido respuestas de 25 personas expertas [5 por cada espacio o construcción vacante] relacionadas con las acciones urbanas sostenibles, la cultura y las relaciones sociales, y que también conocen los lugares y su entorno desde los puntos de vista urbano y construido. Son ‘tipos ideales’ asociados a uno de los cinco poderes que se manifiestan en la ciudad: el poder educativo [la universidad], el poder creativo [la cultura], el poder administrativo [la política], el poder empresarial [la empresa privada] y los usuarios [un usuario activo y representativo de cada lugar elegido que haya intervenido en la gestación del proceso]. Han sido personas que conocían el tejido social y urbano de la ciudad de Zaragoza y Madrid, ya que la herramienta ‘entrevista abierta a expertos’, recoge datos y opiniones planteadas en las construcciones y espacios vacantes ubicados en Zaragoza y Madrid. Entrevistas cerradas a usuarios: como la población de usuarios que se somete a la investigación es infinita o muy grande, resulta imposible o inconveniente realizar la obtención de los datos sobre todos aquellos elementos que la forman. Por lo tanto, he decidido estudiar sólo una parte de la población que denomino ‘tipos ideales’, obteniendo respuestas de 150 usuarios [30 personas por cada espacio o construcción vacante]. La selección de grupos de personas entrevistadas, debe permitir que los resultados sean representativos de la población total de usuarios. Además, la elección de ‘tipos ideales’ se ha identificado con los vecinos de los núcleos urbanos [o barrios] en los que se ubican las construcciones o espacios vacantes analizados. Observación estructurada: recoger información a través de la observación me ha permitido conocer las actuaciones y comportamientos de los ciudadanos en el medio urbano. Esto ha facilitado el estudio del medio a nivel práctico, valorando el uso que la sociedad da a las construcciones y a los espacios vacantes analizados. Es importante posicionar la estrategia en relación con el tema de investigación propuesto. Una estrategia que dibuje un panorama plural, desarrollado a través de herramientas sociales y constructivas que permitan que la arquitectura hable de cosas parecidas a lo que interesa a la ciudadanía. Para ello, propuse un catálogo de herramientas arquitectónicas que han permitido evaluar todas las propuestas. Un contexto de estrategias comunes que han descrito con los mismos códigos las distintas actuaciones analizadas. Estas herramientas tocan diferentes campos de interés. Desde las partes más tectónicas y constructivas, hasta las más ligadas con el desarrollo urbanístico y social. Acciones de participación colectiva: Experiencias o laboratorios urbanos participados por los alumnos del grado de arquitectura de la UNIZAR y los agentes sociales. Las acciones son una herramienta propositiva. Investigar y analizar proponiendo ha permitido que el análisis del contexto pueda llegar a capas de mucha más profundidad. No se ha trabajado estableciendo jerarquías de profesores y alumnos, sino que se ha intentado posibilitar la conexión de distintos agentes que trabajan coordinadamente durante el tiempo que han durado las acciones. Por un lado esto ha permite que cada integrante haya aportado al grupo lo que mejor sabe hacer y de la misma manera, que cada uno pueda aprender aquello de lo que tenga más ganas… y reflexionar sobre determinados aspectos objeto del análisis. Una vez interpretados los resultados, obtenidos a través de las herramientas metodológicas referenciadas, se ha concluido lo que sigue: Respecto de la Hipótesis de partida UNO LAS ACCIONES ‘ABAJO ARRIBA’ han revelado que no se puede entender ningún proceso de gestión urbana fuera de la participación ciudadana. El ‘ESPACIO LIBRE’ de una ciudad necesita lugares de autogestión, espacios de cogestión, movimientos de ‘arriba abajo’ y también modelos que todavía no sabemos ni que existen. LAS ACCIONES INSTITUCIONALES ‘ARRIBA ABAJO’ han demostrado que no han presentado permeabilidad ni relación con las circulaciones de entorno. Tampoco han tenido en cuenta a otras muchas personas, ‘usuarios productores’, a las que les interesan los procesos de búsqueda y las fórmulas de conexión más interactivas. Respecto de la hipótesis de partida DOS LAS ACCIONES ‘ABAJO ARRIBA’ han revelado que el ‘derecho a la ciudad’, paradigma defendido por Lefebvre desde el cual se piensa el urbanismo ciudadano, en estos supuestos podría entenderse como el ‘derecho a la infraestructura’. El ESPACIO LIBRE es infraestructura y se quiere para infraestructurar los derechos de cada uno. Y aunque también es verdad que estas acciones son simples destellos, han hecho visible otro paradigma de gestión y propuesta urbana que puede ser predominante en un futuro próximo. LAS ACCIONES INSTITUCIONALES ‘ARRIBA ABAJO’ han revelado que las intervenciones estuvieron enfocadas únicamente a la resolución de los procesos constructivos y a la incorporación del programa como un dato ‘problema’ que era necesario resolver para evitar la afección al diseño. ABSTRACT The new urban ways of behaviour let us watch more and more frequently in our streets and squares, realities that we had always considered as domestic. This also happens the other way round. Every day we have to go through situations at home which imply relationships with people who don’t belong to our family circle. The domestic design of our cities and the urban planning of indoor design seem to be adequate tools in the world we have to live in. This leads us to think that public and private spaces are simplified terms, defined according to concepts of property in order to organise the city. On the other hand, its uses and the experiences of people, its management and ways of behaviour is now more complex, changing the conventional terminology that has become outdated. In this context, ‘bottom-up’ actions arise as a new paradigm or model of urban renewal. These actions consider the active role of social participation in the process of building up the city from the very beginning, in comparison with the former way of acting that considered the user as mere receptor of the proposals. A citizen who seems to become more and more radical, and an administration that seems to be afraid of the unknown, have created both almost anarchic ghetto spaces and, on the other hand, spaces which have been so institutionalised that derive into areas associated to the administration but alienated from the citizen. For this reason, cowork of both forces is considered as crucial. In accordance with the above mentioned ideas and within a comparative framework, five situations chosen from the cities of Madrid and Zaragoza are studied. Madrid because is a national and international reference in urban development that uses “bottom-up” processes. Zaragoza because is a “medium-size” city that, historically, has not been defined by clear social or institutional urban strategies. Nevertheless, at the present time we can identify approaches on the recovery of constructions and empty areas that may be determining for reaching a balance with the intense institutional processes that have taken place in the two last decades. From the urban processes registered in every place and developed in vacant areas and constructions, I have chosen: Vacant constructions Madrid | Lavapiés Tobacco Factory Zaragoza | Old Secondary School Luis Buñuel and old Convent of the Minimos Vacant areas Madrid | Campo de Cebada [non-built site]. Zaragoza | Old courtyard of the secondary school and Eduardo Ibarra square [free space] The research project has been issued from the following starting hypotheses: ONE… “Bottom-up actions” or renewal from below have no place as isolated urban elements but as connected parts that can produce synergies and the construction of the city, and that can also be considered as actions producing urban development and links. This can also be applied to the rest of urban processes or actions [‘horizontal’ or ‘institutional’]. TWO… The capacity of adaptation shown by “bottom-up actions” implies an ideological framework of reference which is related to the importance of construction with minimal resources (re-occupation and/or reconstruction of urban structures in disuse) in the above mentioned urban processes, as a way for understanding the concepts of sustainability and the representational quality of what has been constructed. This can also be applied to the recovery of those architectural aspects that make architecture necessary for society. And its objective is: Identify models of urban sustainability as a strategy going from the individual to the collective, which are mainly transferred by action and that mix innovation and technology in many fields. Models that use natural and intellectual resources in an efficient way, and understand human intelligence and, above all, collective intelligence, as principle and justification. The following aspects have been analysed: social [civic participation and involvement of the public Administration], urban [connections with other collectives or urban spaces / urban transformation by the processes of administration used], constructive [materials used for the re-construction of empty spaces / construction systems used] and those focusing on sustainability [economic sustainability /maintenance sustainability /functional sustainability / collective intelligence]. For researching into the above mentioned aspects, the following methodological tools have been developed: Open interviews with experts: answers from 25 experts have been obtained [five for every vacant space or empty construction] on sustainable urban actions, culture and social relations, who also know the places and their environment from an urban and constructive point of view. These are “ideal types” linked to one of the five powers acting in the city: the educational power [University], the creative power [culture], the administration power [politics], the corporate power [private companies] and the users [an active and representative user for every place selected during the establishment of the process]. They were people who knew the social and urban fabric of Zaragoza and Madrid, since the “open interview for experts” tool collects data and points of view set out in vacant constructions and spaces of Zaragoza and Madrid. Close interviews with users: as the number of users targeted for the research is very big or infinite, it is impossible or inconvenient to get data from all its constituent parts. Therefore, I have decided to research into the part of the population that I call “ideal types”, obtaining answers from 150 users [30 people for every empty space or construction]. The selection of the groups of people interviewed must produce results which are representative of the total population of users. Furthermore, the election of “ideal types” has been identified with the inhabitants of urban areas [or city districts] in which the vacant spaces or constructions analysed are located. A structured observation: I have known the actions and ways of behaving of the citizens in the urban environment by means of collecting information after observation. Therefore, the practical research into the target environment has been easier by valuing the use that society gives to the empty constructions and spaces analysed. It is important to position the strategy with respect to the research subject proposed. It involves a strategy able to get an overview of a plural landscape, developed by social and constructive tools, allowing architecture to talk about topics which are interesting for city dwellers. Therefore, I proposed a set of architectural tools to evaluate all the proposals. A context of common strategies describing the different actions analysed by using the same codes. These tools focus on different fields of interests, from the most tectonic and constructive parts, to the most related to urban and social development. Actions on collective participation: experiences or urban laboratories shared by the students of architecture of the University of Zaragoza and social agents. The actions are a proactive tool. Researching and analysing by means of proposing, has allowed me to analyse the context and much deeper layers. This work has not been done by establishing ranks of professors and student, but trying to get an interaction between the different agents who work in close coordination during the implementation of the actions. This has allowed every agent to contribute the group what they do the best, and also every individual has had the possibility to learn what s/he prefers…, thinking about the different aspects targeted by the analysis. Once the different methodological tools have been interpreted, this is the conclusion: With regard to the initial hypothesis ONE “BOTTOM-UP” ACTIONS have proven that no process of urban management can be understood outside civic participation. The “FREE SPACE” of a city needs self-managed places, co-managed spaces, “up-bottom” movements, and also models whose existence is still ignored. “UP-BOTTOM” INSTITUTIONAL ACTIONS have proven that they have not presented neither permeability nor relation with local ideas. They have also disregarded many other people, the “usersproducers”, who are interested in the most interactive means of searching and connecting processes. With regard to the initial hypothesis TWO Under these premises, “BOTTOM-UP” ACTIONS have shown that the “right to the city”, a paradigm defended by Lefebvre and from which citizen-focused urbanism is conceived, could be considered as a “right to the infrastructures”. A FREE SPACE is an infrastructure and must be used to “infrastructure” the rights of every citizen. And, even though it is true that these actions are mere flashes, they have made visible another paradigm of management and urban proposal that can be prevailing in a near future. “UP-BOTTOM” INSTITUTIONAL ACTIONS have revealed that the interventions have only focused on resolving construction processes and the incorporation of the program as a “problem” data that was necessary to resolve in order to avoid its influence on the design.

Trans arquitectura : imaginación, invención e individuación del objeto técnico arquitectónico : transferencia tecnológica desde la industria del transporte al proyecto arquitectónico (1900-1973)

Se presenta la tesis doctoral, titulada ‘TRANS Arquitectura. Imaginación, Invención e individuación del objeto tecnico arquitectónico. Transferencia tecnológica desde la Industria del Transporte al Proyecto de Arquitectura [1900-1973]'’, que aborda la relación entre la Arquitectura y el Objeto Técnico durante la Modernidad.1 La temática de la tesis gravita en torno a la cultura técnica, la cultura material y la historia de la Tecnología del siglo XX. Hipótesis Se sostiene aquí la existencia de unas arquitecturas que se definen como Objetos Técnicos. Para demostrarlo se estudia si éstas comparten las mismas propiedades ontológicas de los objetos técnicos. Industria y Arquitectura La historia de la Arquitectura Moderna es la historia de la Industria Moderna y sus instalaciones industriales, sus productos y artefactos o sus procedimientos y procesos productivos. Fábricas, talleres, acerías, astilleros, minas, refinerías, laboratorios, automóviles, veleros, aviones, dirigibles, transbordadores, estaciones espaciales, electrodomésticos, ordenadores personales, teléfonos móviles, motores, baterías, turbinas, aparejos, cascos, chassis, carrocerías, fuselajes, composites, materiales sintéticos, la cadena de montaje, la fabricación modular, la cadena de suministros, la ingeniería de procesos, la obsolescencia programada… Todos estos objetos técnicos evolucionan constantemente gracias al inconformismo de la imaginación humana, y como intermediarios que son, cambian nuestra manera de relacionarnos con el mundo. La Arquitectura, al igual que otros objetos técnicos, media entre el hombre y el mundo. Con el objetivo de reducir el ámbito tan vasto de la investigación, éste se ha filtrado a partir de varios parámetros y cualidades de la Industria, estableciendo un marco temporal, vinculado con un determinado modo de hacer, basado en la ciencia. El inicio del desarrollo industrial basado en el conocimiento científico se da desde la Segunda Revolución Industrial, por consenso en el último tercio del siglo XIX. Este marco centra el foco de la tesis en el proceso de industrialización experimentado por la Arquitectura desde entonces, y durante aproximadamente un siglo, recorriendo la Modernidad durante los 75 primeros años del siglo XX. Durante este tiempo, los arquitectos han realizado transferencias de imágenes, técnicas, procesos y materiales desde la Industria, que ha servido como fuente de conocimiento para la Arquitectura, y ha evolucionado como disciplina. Para poder abordar más razonablemente un periodo tan amplio, se ha elegido el sector industrial del transporte, que históricamente ha sido, no sólo fuente de inspiración para los Arquitectos, sino también fuente de transferencia tecnológica para la Arquitectura. Conjuntos técnicos como los astilleros, fábricas de automóviles o hangares de aviones, individuos técnicos como barcos, coches o aviones, y elementos técnicos como las estructuras que les dan forma y soporte, son todos ellos objetos técnicos que comparten propiedades con las arquitecturas que aquí se presentan. La puesta en marcha de la cadena móvil de montaje en 1913, se toma instrumentalmente como primer foco temporal desde el que relatar la evolución de numerosos objetos técnicos en la Primera Era de la Máquina; un segundo foco se sitúa en 19582, año de la creación de la Agencia Espacial norteamericana (NASA), que sirve de referencia para situar la Segunda Era de la Máquina. La mayoría de los objetos técnicos arquitectónicos utilizados para probar la hipótesis planteada, gravitan en torno a estas fechas, con un rango de más menos 25 años, con una clara intención de sincronizar el tiempo de la acción y el tiempo del pensamiento. Arquitectura y objeto técnico Los objetos técnicos han estado siempre relacionados con la Arquitectura. En el pasado, el mismo técnico que proyectaba y supervisaba una estructura, se ocupaba de inventar los ingenios y máquinas para llevarlas a cabo. Los maestros de obra, eran verdaderos ‘agentes de transferencia tecnológica’ de la Industria y su conocimiento relacionaba técnicas de fabricación de diferentes objetos técnicos. Brunelleschi inventó varia grúas para construir la cúpula de Santa Maria dei Fiori (ca.1461), seguramente inspirado por la reedición del tratado de Vitruvio, De Architectura (15 A.C.), cuyo último capítulo estaba dedicado a las máquinas de la arquitectura clásica romana, y citaba a inventores como Archimedes. El arquitecto florentino fue el primero en patentar un invento en 1421: una embarcación anfibia que serviría para transportar mármol de Carrara por el río Arno, para su obra en Florencia. J. Paxton. Crystal Palace. London 1851. Viga-columna. Robert McCormick. Cosechadora 1831. 2ª patente, 1845. La Segunda Revolución Industrial nos dejó un primitivo ejemplo moderno de la relación entre la Arquitectura y el objeto técnico. El mayor edificio industrializado hasta la fecha, el Crystal Palace de Londres, obra de Joseph Paxton, fue montado en Londres con motivo de la Gran Exposición sobre la Industria Mundial de 1851, y siempre estará asociado a la cosechadora McCormick, merecedora del Gran Premio del Jurado. De ambos objetos técnicos, podrían destacarse características similares, como su origen industrial, y ser el complejo resultado de un ensamblaje simple de elementos técnicos. Desde la entonces, el desarrollo tecnológico ha experimentado una aceleración continuada, dando lugar a una creciente especialización y separación del conocimiento sobre las técnicas antes naturalmente unidas. Este proceso se ha dado a expensas del conocimiento integrador y en detrimento de la promiscuidad entre la Industria y la Arquitectura. Este es, sin lugar a dudas, un signo consustancial a nuestro tiempo, que provoca un natural interés de los arquitectos y otros tecnólogos, por las transferencias, trans e inter-disciplinareidades que tratan de re-establecer los canales de relación entre los diferentes campos del conocimiento. La emergencia de objetos técnicos como los vehículos modernos a principios del siglo XX (el automóvil, el trasatlántico, el dirigible o el aeroplano) está relacionada directamente con la Arquitectura de la Primera Era de la Máquina. La fascinación de los arquitectos modernos por aquellas nuevas estructuras habitables, se ha mantenido durante más de un siglo, con diferente intensidad y prestando atención a unos objetos técnicos u otros, oscilando entre el dominio del valor simbólico de los vehículos como objetosimágenes, durante el periodo heroico de la Primera Era de la Máquina, y la mirada más inquisitiva durante la Segunda, que perseguía un conocimiento más profundo de la organización de los mismos y del sistema técnico en el que estaban incluidos. La relación homóloga que existe entre arquitecturas y vehículos, por su condición de estructuras habitables, es algo de sobra conocido desde que Le Corbusier utilizara aquellas imágenes de barcos, coches y aviones para ilustrar su manifiesto Vers une architecture, de 1923. Los vehículos modernos han sido los medios con los que transmitir los conceptos que ansiaban transformar las propiedades tradicionales de la Arquitectura, relativas a su factura, su habitabilidad, su duración, su funcionalidad o su estética. Destaca particularmente el caso del automóvil en las décadas de los años 30 y 50, y los vehículos del programa espacial en las décadas de los 60 y 70. El conocimiento y la documentación previa de estos hechos, fueron un buen indicio para identificar y confirmar que el sector industrial del transporte, era un especialmente trascendente y fértil proveedor de casos de transferencia tecnológica para la Arquitectura. La tradición Moderna inaugurada por Le Corbusier en los años 20, ha sido mantenida y defendida por una multitud de arquitectos modernos como Albert Frey, Richard Neutra, Ralph Soriano, Charles Eames o Craig Ellwood, cuyo trabajo, animado por el legado de anteriores tecnólogos como Bucky Fuller o Jean Prouvé, fue fundamental y referencia obligada para la siguiente generación de arquitectos como Cedric Price, Archigram, Norman Foster, Richard Rogers, Renzo Piano, Jean Kaplicky o Richard Horden, entre otros. Todos ellos han contribuido a engrosar el imaginario del objeto técnico, aportando sus obras arquitectónicas. Estos arquitectos que aparecen repetidamente en el discurrir de la tesis, pertenecen a un mismo linaje, y son agrupados según una estructura ‘genealógica’, que se ha denominado ‘Estirpe Técnica’. Unidos por intereses comunes y similares enfoques o actitudes ante el proyecto de arquitectura, entendida como objeto Técnico, han operado mediante la práctica de la transferencia tecnológica, sin limitarse a las técnicas compositivas propias de la disciplina arquitectónica. Durante la investigación, se ha recopilado una selección de menciones explícitas -hechas por arquitectos- sobre otros objetos técnicos para referirse a la Arquitectura, mostrando las constantes y las variaciones de sus intereses a lo largo del siglo, lo que nos ha llevado a conclusiones como por ejemplo, que los conjuntos técnicos (fábricas de zepelines, aviones, automóviles o trasatlánticos) eran tomados por los arquitectos de la primera Modernidad, como un modelo imaginario, formal y compositivo, mientras que los de la Segunda Era de la Máquina los tomaban como modelo espacial y organizativo para la arquitectura. La mencionada estirpe de tecnólogos incluye líneas de descendencia conocidas, como: EiffelSuchovBehrens GropiusMiesLeCorbusierLodsProuve, en la Europa continental, o una rama británica como: LoudonPaxtonWilliamsStirlingGowan SmithsonsPriceArchigramFosterRogersPiano KaplickyHorden. También podemos encontrar conexiones intercontinentales como Fuller EamesRudolphFosterRogers, o ramificaciones menos previsibles como: LeRicolaisKahn PianoKaplicky, o LeCorbusierFreyLacaton Vassal… Seguramente muchos más merecerían incluirse en esta lista, y de hecho, la tesis asume la imposibilidad de incluirlo todo (por motivos prácticos) aunque contempla la posibilidad de ser ampliada en un futuro. Con lo aquí incluido, se pretende mostrar la continuidad en los enfoques, planteamientos y técnicas de proyectos aplicadas, de los que podemos deducir algunas conclusiones, como por ejemplo, que en los periodos inmediatamente posteriores a las dos Guerras Mundiales, aumentó la intensidad de aportaciones de nuevas imágenes de vehículos, al imaginario del objeto técnico utilizado por los arquitectos, a través de publicaciones y exposiciones. Hoy, cien años después de que Ford pusiera en marcha la cadena móvil de montaje, aún encontramos viva esta tradición en las palabras de un arquitecto, Richard Horden, cuyo trabajo porta consigo –como la información embebida en los elementos técnicos- toda una cultura técnica de una tradición moderna. Horden representa uno de los exponentes de la que he denominado estirpe de tecnólogos. Es por ello que he querido concluir la tesis con una entrevista, realizada en Mayo de 2015, en su estudio de Berkeley Square en Londres (ver Apéndices). Guías Para el desarrollo de la presente tesis, se ha tomado, como principal obra de referencia, otra tesis, titulada El modo de existencia de los objetos técnicos, leída y publicada en 1958 por el filósofo francés Gilbert Simondon [1924-89], dedicada a la ontología del objeto técnico. Esta obra enmarca el enfoque intelectual de la tesis, que entronca con la fenomenología, para movilizar una visión particular de la Arquitectura, a la que sirve como modelo de análisis ontológico para estudiar sus procesos de génesis, invención e individuación. Para el desarrollo de éstos, se ha utilizado como complemento bibliográfico, otra obra del mismo autor, titulada Imaginación e invención 1965-66. En cuanto a las fuentes historiográficas disciplinares, se ha elegido utilizar a Reyner P. Banham [1922-1988] y a Martin E. Pawley [1938-2008] como guías a través de la arquitectura del siglo XX. Sus crónicas sobre la Primera y Segunda Era de la Máquina3 y su obra crítica, han servido como índices desde los que reconstruir el imaginario del objeto técnico moderno, y del que aprovisionarse de proyectos y obras de Arquitectura como casos de estudio para la tesis. Estas obras han servido además como índices de otra bibliografía, que ha sido complementaria a la de éstos. Objetivos de la Tesis El principal objetivo de la tesis es demostrar la hipótesis: si una obra de arquitectura puede ser considerada un objeto técnico y bajo qué condiciones, construyendo un criterio que permita reconocer cuándo una obra de Arquitectura responde a la definición de objeto técnico. Otro objetivo es demostrar la importancia y potencia de la Transferencia tecnológica en el proceso evolutivo de la Arquitectura, y para ello se presentan ejemplos de una metodología de proyecto por ensamblaje, que Martin Pawley denominaba ‘Design by Assembly’. También es un objetivo el de reconstruir un Atlas del Imaginario del objeto técnico moderno, con el fin de conocer mejor las causas, razones y finalidades que llevaron a los arquitectos modernos a perseguir una arquitectura como objeto técnico. Este Atlas permite relacionar panópticamente los distintos objetos técnicos entre sí, revelando la verdadera importancia y trascendencia de aquéllos y las arquitecturas con las que se relacionan. En él, las arquitecturas vuelven a situarse en el contexto más extenso y complejo de la industria y la historia de la tecnología, al que siempre pertenecieron. De este modo, éstas son capaces de desvelar todo el conocimiento -en forma de información- que portan en su propio código ‘genético’, desplegando capítulos completos de cultura tecnológica, tan antigua como la Humanidad y en constante y creciente evolución. Estructura de la tesis Tras una Introducción en la que se presentan algunos de los conceptos principales que se instrumentalizan en la tesis sobre la ontología Simondoniana del objeto técnico y sobre la transferencia tecnológica aplicada al proyecto de Arquitectura, el texto principal de la tesis consta de tres partes: La primera se dedica a la Imaginación, una segunda parte a la Invención y una tercera a Individuación o evolución del objeto técnico. Se termina con una Discusión de la tesis y un apartado de Conclusiones. En la Introducción al objeto técnico, éste se define ontológicamente y se distinguen sus diferentes categorías (conjuntos técnicos, individuos técnicos y elementos técnicos). Se explica el proceso de génesis del objeto técnico y sus fases de imaginación, invención e individuación. También se presentan los conceptos de transducción, tecnicidad y sistema técnico, fundamentales para entender el concepto de transferencia tecnológica que se desarrollará después. La concretización, explica el modo particular de individuación y evolución de los objetos técnicos, un proceso por el que las diferentes partes de un objeto técnico, se integran y tienden hacia la propia convergencia. Aquí se comprueba la efectividad del concepto simondoniano de Transducción, como señal o información transmitida y transformada, y se relaciona con la Transferencia Tecnológica - un proceso sinergético, por el que un sector industrial se beneficia del desarrollo de otro sector- a la que se han referido explícitamente arquitectos e historiadores para explicar sus obras, durante la Segunda Era de la Máquina, y que es determinante para el desarrollo de la Industria. La transferencia tecnológica sería la transmisión del conjunto de conocimientos sobre la técnica, que incluyen su esfera fáctica, pero también la esfera sensible de la experiencia. En su aplicación a la arquitectura, las transferencias se han clasificado según tres tipos: Eidéticas, Tectónicas, Orgánicas. En la primera parte dedicada a la Imaginación del objeto técnico arquitectónico se realiza una reconstrucción ‘arqueológica’ –y parcial- del imaginario del objeto técnico moderno, con la intención de conocer mejor su génesis y la relación con otros objetos técnicos. Las fuentes de ese imaginario se buscan en las instalaciones de la Industria de principios de siglo XX, en particular en las fábricas de vehículos, con la finalidad de comprobar hasta qué punto, esos objetos técnicos fueron importantes para imaginar la Arquitectura moderna. La reconstrucción se continúa hasta la Segunda Era de la Máquina, cuando una nueva mirada más inquisitiva y precisa, se dirige a otras fábricas, vehículos y componentes, interesándose por sus cualidades materiales y organizativas. Transferencias Eidéticas, que operan desde un conocimiento intuitivo y son útiles para transmitir información sobre la esencia de un objeto técnico que sirve de fuente. Conceptos abstractos se transmiten por medio de las imágenes—objeto, para producir una transformación en su equivalente arquitectónico. Fruto de la investigación, se han detectado un grupo de conceptos que han sido objeto de transferencias tecnológicas de naturaleza eidética, provenientes del imaginario del objeto técnico moderno: FABRICADO, HABITABLE, FUNCIONAL, EFICIENTE, OBSOLESCENTE y BELLO. En la segunda parte dedicada a la Invención del objeto técnico arquitectónico, las transferencias también pueden ser Tectónicas, cuando lo que se transmite es una técnica constructiva o estructural aplicada mediante MATERIALES artificiales (como los metales, los composites como el ferrocemento, y el plywood, o las aleaciones como el aluminio) o mediante el ensamblaje de ESTRUCTURAS o partes componentes de otro objeto técnico, (como cascos, fuselajes, carrocerías o aparejos) y tiene como resultado la invención de un nuevo objeto técnico arquitectónico. En la tercera parte dedicada a la individuación, se abordan las transferencias ORGÁNICAS, lo que se transfiere es una técnica organizativa, aplicada a través de PROCEDIMIENTOS que definen la actividad del arquitecto como tecnólogo e inventor de objetos técnicos. Estos procedimientos tienen un efecto transformador en tres instituciones tradicionales para la Arquitectura: la Escuela, el Estudio y la Obra, y sus resultados se resumen en nuevos modelos de organización de la Educación de la Arquitectura, con la aparición de los Talleres de proyectos; nuevos modelos de organización del ejercicio de arquitecto: la Oficina técnica; nuevos modelos de organización del espacio, basados en la organización espacial de la Industria, que da lugar a patrones o Matrices espaciales; un nuevo modelo de organización del proyecto, que utiliza las herramientas gráficas de la industria y el ensamblaje como metodología; y un nuevo modelo de producción arquitectónica, basado en la Industrialización. Tras explicar los conceptos y la génesis del ensamblaje y el montaje, se presenta el proyecto por ensamblaje (Design by assembly) como un método que promueve la invención arquitectónica. Se demuestra utilizando algunos casos analizados en la tesis, en los que se ha realizado alguna transferencia conceptual, constructiva u organizativa. Tras analizar las arquitecturas estudiadas en la tesis, se ha utilizado el método genético propuesto por Simondon para comprender cada evolución particular, reconstruyendo las líneas genealógicas hasta sus ancestros, e identificando una serie de linajes genéticos, que corresponderían con los conjuntos técnicos estudiados en la tesis: el astillero, la fábrica de coches, y la fábrica de aeronaves: los Ancestros de la Modernidad. Los sistemas de organización espacial de estos conjuntos técnicos, están directamente relacionados con el objeto técnico que se produce en él. A partir de ellos se definen una serie de matrices operativas (MILL, SHOP, SHED), que sirven para hacer una taxonomía del objeto técnico arquitectónico. Esto se ejemplifica con algunos proyectos de Norman Foster, Richard Rogers, Renzo Piano, Nicholas Grimshaw, Jean Kaplicky y Richard Horden. Tesis: Comprobación de la hipótesis Simondon definía ontológicamente el Objeto técnico como aquello de lo que existe génesis y que desarrolla una tendencia hacia la solidaridad y unidad. Para que una Arquitectura pueda ser reconocida como un Objeto técnico, se deben dar una serie de condiciones, en las sucesivas fases que intervienen en su modo de existencia: Imaginación. Estas arquitecturas remiten a un imaginario protagonizado por imágenes-objeto de otros objetos técnicos (conjuntos técnicos, individuos técnicos y elementos técnicos). Esas imágenes-objeto vehiculizan una transferencia eidética de los objetos técnicos que simbolizan. Invención. Estas arquitecturas son el resultado de transferencias tectónicas, que se producen durante el proceso de proyecto, mediante el ensamblaje de materiales, componentes o procedimientos, utilizados en la industria para la producción de otros objetos técnicos. Individuación. Estas arquitecturas evolucionan y se individualizan por concretización, un proceso por el que los objetos técnicos se organizan para seguir su tendencia hacia la integración de sus partes, con el fin de alcanzar la convergencia de funciones en una única estructura. Esta integración tiende hacia la naturalización del objeto técnico, mediante la inclusión simbiótica de sus medios naturales asociados. En este caso, veremos cómo se ha producido transferencias orgánicas, o lo que es lo mismo, cómo los objetos técnicos –en el nivel de los conjuntos técnicos- se han tomado como modelo de organización por la arquitectura. Tras comprobar que de ellas existe una génesis, que evoluciona por las fases de imaginación e invención y concretización, se analiza su imaginario, su materialidad, sus estructuras y su organización, con el fin de detectar patrones y principios organizativos comunes a otros objetos técnicos. Interés de la tesis Desde el comienzo del nuevo siglo, diversos autores han demostrado un renovado interés por definir qué es el proyecto, qué lo constituye para qué sirve. Las aproximaciones al tema provienen de la filosofía analítica (Galle, 2008) o de la filosofía de la tecnología (Verbeek, 2005; Vermaas, 2009) y a menudo versan sobre la relación entre diseño y la cultura material (Dorschel 2003, Boradkar 2010 o Preston 2012). Es importante indicar el reciente y también creciente interés suscitado por la obra del filósofo francés, Gilbert Simondon [1924-1989], reconocida por su importante contribución a la filosofía de la técnica y la fenomenología, y por la influencia en el pensamiento de filósofos como Gilles Deleuze, autor presente en multitud de tesis doctorales e investigaciones teóricas llevadas a cabo en las principales escuelas de Arquitectura de todo el mundo desde los años 90 hasta el presente. La reedición y traducción de la obra de Simondon (ing. 1980, esp. 2008) ha recibido la atención de filósofos actuales como Paolo Virno, Bruno Latour o Bernard Stiegler, que siguen recurriendo a su estudio y análisis para avanzar en su pensamiento, estando por tanto presente en el debate contemporáneo sobre la técnica. Tras su reciente traducción al español, el pensamiento de Simondon ha despertado un gran interés en América Latina, como demuestra la organización de varios congresos y simposios, así como la proliferación de publicaciones en torno a su obra y pensamiento. Las futuras traducciones del resto de sus principales obras, asegurarán una introducción cada vez mayor en la comunidad académica. Se ha procurado presentar una mirada alternativa de la Historia de la Arquitectura Moderna, utilizando como guía a un cronista como Reyner Banham. La Era de la Máquina se ha cruzado con la Mecanología y el “vitalismo técnico” de Simondon, obteniendo como resultado una interpretación fresca, renovada y optimista de algunas de las más importantes obras de Arquitectura del siglo XX, que seguro contribuirán al desarrollo de la del siglo XXI, inmerso ya en el cambio de paradigma hacia la sostenibilidad y la ecología. ABSTRACT 'TRANS architecture. Imagination, invention and technical individuation of the architectural technical object. Technology transfer from the Transport Industry to Architectural Design [1900- 1973]' is a thesis dealing with the relationship between Architecture and the Technical Object during Modernity5. The theme of the thesis revolves around the technical culture, material culture and the history of twentieth-century technology. Hypothesis Held here is the existence of some architectures defined as technical objects. A study has been developed to prove if those architectures share the ontological properties of a technical object. Industry and Architecture The history of Modern Architecture is also the history of modern industry and its facilities, its products and devices, its procedures and production processes. Factories, workshops, steel mills, shipyards, mines, refineries, laboratories, cars, yachts, airplanes, airships, shuttles, space stations, home appliances, personal computers, mobile phones, motors, batteries, turbines, rigs, hulls, chassis, bodies, fuselages , composites and synthetic materials, the assembly line, modular manufacturing, the supply chain, process engineering, the planned obsolescence ... All these technical objects are constantly evolving thanks to the inconsistency of the human imagination and, as our intermediates, keep changing our way of relating and being in the world. Architecture, alike other technical objects, mediates between man and the World. In order to frame the vast field of the research, it has been filtered according to various parameters and qualities of Industry, establishing also a time frame which is related to a particular science-based way of making. The start of an industrial development, based on scientific knowledge is given from the Second Industrial Revolution -by consensus on the last third of the nineteenth century. This frame puts the focus of the thesis in the process of industrialization experienced by the Architecture of at least one century, and tours through Modernity during the first 75 years of the twenieth century. During this time, architects have made transfers of images, techniques, processes and materials from Industry, serving as a source of knowledge and thus allowing Architecture to evolve as a discipline. To reasonably address the enormous scope of the thesis, the industrial sector of transportation has ben chosen. It is not only a historical source of inspiration for architects, but also a traditional source of technology transfer for Modern Architecture. Technical sets such as shipyards, automobile factories or aircraft hangars, technical individuals as boats, cars or planes, and technical elements like the structures shaping and supporting them, are all technical objects which share properties with the architectures here presented. The launch of the moving assembly line in 1913, is instrumentally taken as a first time focus, from which to describe the evolution of many technical objects in the First Machine Age; a second focus could be found in 19586, year of the creation of the North American Space Agency (NASA), serving as a reference to the Second Machine Age. Most architectural technical objects used to test the hypothesis, gravitate around this second focus, in a range of plus or minus 25 years, with a clear intention to synchronize the time for action and time of thought. Architecture and Technical Object Technical objects have always been related to Architecture. In the past, the same technician who planned and oversaw a building structure, invented the devices and machines to carry them out. The foremen were the true 'technology transfer agents' from Industry. Their knowledge naturally related different manufacturing techniques to make diverse technical objects. Brunelleschi invented various cranes to build the dome of Santa Maria dei Fiori in Florence (ca.1461). Probably inspired by the reedition of Vitruvius’ treaty De Architectura (15 BC), whose last chapter was dedicated to the machines of classical Roman architecture and quoted inventors as Archimedes, the florentine architect was the first to patent an invention in 1421: an amphibious craft serving as a means of transportation for Carrara marble along the Arno river. At the daw of the Second Industrial Revolution, whose development was based on the scientific knowledge, we find a primitive modern example of the relationship between Architecture and a Technical Object: The Crystal Palace, built in London for the Great Exhibition of 1851 World Industry and designed by Joseph Paxton, was the largest to date industrialized building, and it will be always associated with the McCormick Reaper, worthy of the Grand Jury’s Prize. Similar characteristics could be emphasized of both technical objects, such as their industrial origin and for being be the complex result of a simple assembly of technical elements. Since then, technological development has experienced a continued acceleration, resulting in an increasing specialization and separation of knowledge about techniques which were naturally attached in the past. This process has happened at the expense of an integrative knowledge and against promiscuity between Industry and Architecture. This is, undoubtedly, an inherent sign of our time, which causes the natural and interest of architects and other technicians about transfers, trans-disciplinarity and inter-disciplinarity, as a reaction to reestablish channels of relationships between these different fields of knowledge. The emergence of technical objects as modern vehicles in the early twentieth century (the car, the Ocean liner, the airship or the airplane) is directly related to the Architecture of the First Machine Age. Modern architects’ fascination for those new ‘inhabitable’ structures has been maintained for over a century, with different intensity and paying attention to one and other technical objets, ranging from the domain of the symbolic value of the vehicles as objectsimages, during heroic period of the First Machine Age, to the more inquisitive glance characterizing the Second Machine Age, which sought a deeper understanding of the organization of such objects and the technical system to which they belonged. The periods immediately following both World Wars, showed a concentrated effort to bring new images of vehicles to the imaginary of architects, by means of publications and exhibitions. The homologous relationship between architectures and vehicles, in their capacity as living structures, is something well known since Le Corbusier used the images of cars, boats and airplanes to illustrate his manifesto, Towards an architecture in 1923. Modern vehicles have been the means by which to convey the concepts eager to transform the traditional attributes of Architecture: those relating to its manufacture, habitability, duration, functionality or aesthetics. The automobile stands out during the 30s and 50s, and the new vehicles of the Space Program satnd in the 60s and 70s. The prior knowledge and documentation of these events were a good indication to identify the industrial sector of Transportation as one of especial importance and as a fertile provider of technology transfer cases for Architecture. The Modern tradition, inaugurated by Le Corbusier in the 20s, has been maintained and defended by a host of modern architects like Albert Frey, Richard Neutra, Ralph Soriano, Charles Eames and Craig Ellwood, whose work - inspired by the legacy of previous technologists as Bucky Fuller or Jean Prouvé- was fundamental and a mandatory reference for the next generation of architects like Cedric Price, Archigram, Norman Foster, Richard Rogers, Renzo Piano, Jean and Richard Horden Kaplicky, among others. They have all contributed to increase the imaginary of the technical object, adding to it their architectural works. In the passage of the thesis, we repeatedly find a number of architects, who have been grouped according to a 'genealogical' structure, which has been called 'Technical Lineage'. Gathered by common interests and similar views or attitudes to the architectural design, understood as a technical object, they have operated through the practice of technology transfer, without limiting itself to specific compositional techniques of the architectural discipline. During the investigation, a selection of explicit references made by those architects, about other technical objects referring to their Architecture, has been compiled, showing constants and variations in their interests throughout the century, which has led to conclusions such as, having technicians sets (zeppelins factories, airships factories, car factories and shipyards) been taken by the architects of the first Modernity, as their main formal, compositional and imaginary models, while the Second Machine Age had taken them as a spatial and organizational model for their architecture. The above mentioned lineage of technologists includes weel-known ‘seed lines’ as: Eiffel- Suchov-Behrens, Gropius-Mies-LeCorbusier- Lods-Prouve, in continental Europe; British branches as Loudon-Paxton-Williams-Stirling- Gowan-Smithsons-Price-Archigram-Foster- Rogers-Piano-Kaplicky-Horden. And we could also find intercontinental connections as Fuller- Eames-Rudolph-Foster-Rogers, or other less predictable ramifications as LeRicolais-Kahn Piano-Kaplicky, or LeCorbusier-Frey-Lacaton & Vassal... Many more would surely deserve to be included in this list, and indeed, the thesis assumes the impossibility of including them all (for practical reasons) and even contemplates possible future extensions. The material included herein is to demonstrate the continuity in the approaches, statements and in the applied architectural design techniques, from which we can draw some conclusions. Today, one hundred years after Ford put up the moving assembly line, we still find this tradition alive in the words of the architect Richard Horden, whose work carries with it –as with the information embedded in every technical element- the whole techncial culture of a modern tradition. Horden is represented here as one of the exponents of what I have called the lineage of technologists. That is why I wanted to conclude the thesis with an interview to Richard Horden, held in May 2015 in his studio in London's Berkeley Square (see Appendices). Guides For the development of this thesis, another thesis, entitled: The mode of existence of technical objects, is taken as the main reference work. Read and published in 1958 by the French philosopher Gilbert Simondon [1924- 1989], it was dedicated to the ontology of the technical object. This work frames the intellectual approach of the thesis, which connects with phenomenology to mobilize a particular vision of Architecture. It is used as a model of ontological analysis to study its genesis, invention and evolutionary processes. To develop these, another work by the same author, titled Imagination and Invention (1965- 1966) has been used as a bibliographical complement. As for the disciplinary historical sources, Reyner P. Banham [1922-1988] and Martin E. Pawley [1938-2008] have been chosen as guides through the modern Architecture of the twentieth century. Their cronical reports on the First and Second Machine Age and their critical works have served as an index from which to reconstruct the imaginary of the modern technical object in the Machine Age7, and to stock up on projects and works of architecture, used as case studies for the thesis. These works have also been used as triggers for other literatures, which has been complementary to the former. Objectives of the Thesis The main objective of the thesis is to prove its hypothesis: if a work of architecture can be considered a technical object and under what conditions, building then a criterion for recognizing when a work of architecture meets the definition of a technical object. Another aim is to demonstrate the importance and power of Technology Transfer in the evolutionary process of Architecture, and to do it, some examples of a methodology for architectural design that Martin Pawley called 'Design by Assembly' are presented. It is also an objective to reconstruct an Atlas of the imaginary of the modern technical object, in order to better understand the causes, reasons and purposes that led modern architects to pursue architecture as a technical object. This Atlas allows to panoptically relate the various technical objects, revealing the true importance and significance of those and the architecture with whom they interact. Architectures are again at the largest and most complex industrial context and the history of technology, which always belonged. Thus, they are able to reveal all the knowledge-in the shape of information-carried in their own 'genetic' code, displaying full chapters of technological culture as old as mankind and constantly growing and evolving. Thesis: Proving the Hypothesis Simondon ontologically defined the technical object as ‘that of which genesis exists’ and that develops ‘a tendency towards solidarity and unity’. For an architecture to be recognized as a technical object, a number of conditions should be given, in the successive phases involved in their mode of existence: Imagination. These architectures refer to an imaginary featuring images-object other technical objects (technical sets, technical individuals and technical elements). These images are the means to an eidetic transfer of the technical objects which they symbolize. Invention. These architectures are the result of tectonic transfers, which occur during the architectural design process, by assembling materials, components or procedures used in industry for the production of other technical objects. Individuation. These architectures evolve and are individualized by ‘concretization’, a process leading to the full integration of its parts and aiming the full convergence of its functions into a single structure. This integration tends towards the naturalization of the technical object, by means of a symbiotic incorporation of their associated milieus. After checking if there is a genesis of them, which evolves through the phases of imagination and invention and concretization, their imaginary, materiality, structure and organization are analyzed in order to detect patterns and common organizational principles to other technical objects counterparts. Structure The main text of the thesis consists of three parts. Before there is an Introduction to the main concepts that are exploited in the thesis on ontology Simondonian technical object, and technology transfer applied to Architecture. Then a first part covers the Imaginary of the modern technical object, a second part is dedicated to the Invention and a third part to the individuation process The thesis ends with a section for the Discussion and the Conclusions. The Introduction to the technical object, this is ontologically defined and its different categories are distinguished. The process of genesis of the technical object and the phases of imagination, invention and indivuation are explained. Concepts as Transduction, Technicality and Technical system are presented for being fundamental to understand the concept of Technology Transfer that will take place later. The concretization is explained as the particular mode of individuation and evolution of technical objects, a process by which the different parts of a technical object, are integrated and begin a tendency towards a convergence in itself. The first part, dedicated to the Imagination of the architectural technical object presents a parcial "archaeological" reconstruction the imaginary of the modern technical object, intended to better understand its genesis and the relationship with other technical objects. The imaginary sources are searched in the premises of the Industry of the early twentieth century, and particularly in the factories of modern vehicles, in order to see, to what extent these technical objects were important to imagine modern architecture. The reconstruction is continued until the Second Machine Age, when a new, more inquisitive and precise gaze turns to other factories, other vehicles and other components and materials, inquiring now about their organizational qualities. The second part is devoted to the Invention of the architectural technical object. The effectiveness of the simondonian concept of Transduction is checked: a transmitted and transformed sign or information, which relates to Technology Transfer, a synergetic process by which an industrial sector benefits from the development of another sector, to which some architects and historians have explicitly referred to explain their works during Machine Age, and which is crucial for the development of the industry. Technology transfer would be the transmission of a set of information or knowledge about technique, including the factual sphere of technique, but also the sensitive sphere of experience. In their application to Architecture, these transfers have been classified according to three types: Eidetic, Tectonic and Organic. Eidetic Transfers operate from an intuitive knowledge and are useful for transmitting information about the essence of the technical object serving as a source. Abstract concepts are transmitted through the object-images to produce an equivalent transformation in Architecture. A group of concepts that have been the subject of technology transfers of eidetic nature, and have been originated in the imaginary of the modern technical object, have been detected as a result of the research: FABRICATED, INHABITABLE, FUNCTIONAL, EFFICIENT, OBSOLESCENT, and BEAUTIFUL. The transfers can also be Tectonic when, that which is transferred is a constructive or structural technique, applied through artificial MATERIALS such as metals, composites as the ferrocement, or plywood, or alloys such as aluminum; or by means of the assembly of STRUCTURES or parts of other technical objects such as hulls, fuselages, car bodies or rigs, resulting in the invention of a new architectural technical object. In the case of ORGANIC transfers, what is transferred is an organizational technique, applied by means of a set of PROCEDURES defining the activity of the architect as a technologist and inventor of technical objects. These procedures have a transformative effect on three traditional institutions for Architecture: the School, the Atelier and the Work, and the results are summarized in new models of organization of the Education of Architecture, with the onset of the Architectural Design Studios or workshops; new models of organization of the practice of architect: the technical office; and new models of space organization, based on the spatial organization of the industry, resulting in spatial patterns or spatial matrices; a new model of organization of the project, which uses graphical tools and industrail protocols as the assembly as a methodology; a new model of architectural production based on the industrialization. After explaining the concepts and the genesis of assembly and montage, Design by assembly is presented as a method that promotes architectural invention, and is shown using some case studies analyzed in the thesis, in which there has been made some conceptual, constructive or organizational transfer. After analyzing the architectures studied in the thesis, genetic method proposed by Simondon was used to understand every particular evolution, reconstructing their genealogical lines up to their ancestors, identifying a series of genetic lineages, which correspond to the technical sets studied in the thesis : the shipyard, the car factory, and aircraft factory. The real ancestors of Modernity. The spatial organization systems of these technical sets are directly related to the technical object that is fabricated within them. From that point, a number of operational matrices are defined (MILL, SHOP, SHED) and used to make a taxonomy of the architectural technical object. This is exemplified by some projects by architects as Norman Foster, Richard Rogers, Renzo Piano, Nicholas Grimshaw, Jean and Richard Horden Kaplicky. Interest of the thesis Since the beginning of the new century, several authors have shown a renewed interest in defining what a project is, how it is constituted and what it is for. The approaches to the subject are brought from analytic philosophy (Galle, 2008) or from the philosophy of technology (Verbeek, 2005; Vermaas, 2009) and they often speak about the relationship between design and material culture (Dorschel 2003, 2010 or Preston Boradkar 2012). It is also important to note the recent and growing interest in the work of French philosopher Gilbert Simondon [1924-1989], mainly known for its important contribution to the philosophy of technology and phenomenology of the technical object, and the influence on the thinking of contemporary philosophers as Paolo Virno, Bruno Latour or Gilles Deleuze, being the latter a author present in many doctoral theses and theoretical research conducted at major architecture schools around the world since the 90s to the present. The republication and translation of the work of Simondon (eng. 1980, spn. 2008) has received the attention from current philosophers such as Bernard Stiegler who continues to use its study and analysis to advance his thinking, thus being present in the contemporary debate about the technique. After its recent translation into Spanish, the thought of Simondon has aroused great interest in Latin America, as evidenced by the organization of various conferences and symposia, as well as the proliferation of publications about his work and thought8. Future translations of the rest of his major works, will ensure increased introduction in the academic community. Efforts have been made to present an alternative view of the History of Modern Architecture, using a reporter as Reyner P.Banham as a guide. The Machine Age intersects Simondon’s mechanology and his "technical vitalism", resulting in a fresh, renewed and optimistic interpretation of some of the most important works of Architecture of the twentieth century, which will surely contribute to the development of this century’s Architecture, already immersed in the paradigm shift towards sustainability and ecology.

Systematic Process for Building a Fault Diagnoser Based on Petri Nets Applied to a Helicopter

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Education Planning Evolution for Forest Engineering in Spain

Forest engineering in Spain has a long tradition and active presence in the engineering field. It is also one of the first educational institutions that shaped the Spanish technological panorama in the mid nineteenth century. The actual situation of the forest systems in Spain is the result of 166 years of observation, research, education and the application of specific techniques and principles that forest engineers acquired with the successive study plans that were implanted in educational institutions. In this paper, the planning historical process of education in Forest engineer is analyzed, differentiating between four historical periods. The analysis of the stages focuses on the contents of the study plans, the orientation towards educational objectives, the duration of the studies and the causes for the modifications that had an impact on the evolution through time within the framework of the acquired experience and the technological advances

GESTÃO DO CONHECIMENTO: UM ESTUDO SOBRE A RELAÇÃO ENTRE A LIDERANÇA TRANSFORMACIONAL, A CONVERSÃO DO CONHECIMENTO E A EFICÁCIA ORGANIZACIONAL

Este estudo teve como objetivo principal analisar a relação entre a Liderança Transformacional, a Conversão do Conhecimento e a Eficácia Organizacional. Foram considerados como pressupostos teóricos conceitos consolidados sobre os temas desta relação, além de recentes pesquisas já realizadas em outros países e contextos organizacionais. Com base nisto identificou-se potencial estudo de um modelo que relacionasse estes três conceitos. Para tal considera-se que as organizações que buscam atingir Vantagem Competitiva e incorporam a Knowledge-Based View possam conquistar diferenciação frente a seus concorrentes. Nesse contexto o conhecimento ganha maior destaque e papel protagonista nestas organizações. Dessa forma criar conhecimento através de seus colaboradores, passa a ser um dos desafios dessas organizações ao passo que sugere melhoria de seus indicadores Econômicos, Sociais, Sistêmicos e Políticos, o que se define por Eficácia Organizacional. Portanto os modos de conversão do conhecimento nas organizações, demonstram relevância, uma vez que se cria e se converte conhecimentos através da interação entre o conhecimento existente de seus colaboradores. Essa conversão do conhecimento ou modelo SECI possui quatro modos que são a Socialização, Externalização, Combinação e Internalização. Nessa perspectiva a liderança nas organizações apresenta-se como um elemento capaz de influenciar seus colaboradores, propiciando maior dinâmica ao modelo SECI de conversão do conhecimento. Se identifica então na liderança do tipo Transformacional, características que possam influenciar colaboradores e entende-se que esta relação entre a Liderança Transformacional e a Conversão do Conhecimento possa ter influência positiva nos indicadores da Eficácia Organizacional. Dessa forma esta pesquisa buscou analisar um modelo que explorasse essa relação entre a liderança do tipo Transformacional, a Conversão do Conhecimento (SECI) e a Eficácia Organizacional. Esta pesquisa teve o caráter quantitativo com coleta de dados através do método survey, obtendo um total de 230 respondentes válidos de diferentes organizações. O instrumento de coleta de dados foi composto por afirmativas relativas ao modelo de relação pesquisado com um total de 44 itens. O perfil de respondentes concentrou-se entre 30 e 39 anos de idade, com a predominância de organizações privadas e de departamentos de TI/Telecom, Docência e Recursos Humanos respectivamente. O tratamento dos dados foi através da Análise Fatorial Exploratória e Modelagem de Equações Estruturais via Partial Least Square Path Modeling (PLS-PM). Como resultado da análise desta pesquisa, as hipóteses puderam ser confirmadas, concluindo que a Liderança Transformacional apresenta influência positiva nos modos de Conversão do Conhecimento e que; a Conversão do Conhecimento influencia positivamente na Eficácia Organizacional. Ainda, concluiu-se que a percepção entre os respondentes não apresenta resultado diferente sobre o modelo desta pesquisa entre quem possui ou não função de liderança.

High efficiency mutagenesis, repair, and engineering of chromosomal DNA using single-stranded oligonucleotides

Homologous DNA recombination is a fundamental, regenerative process within living organisms. However, in most organisms, homologous recombination is a rare event, requiring a complex set of reactions and extensive homology. We demonstrate in this paper that Beta protein of phage λ generates recombinants in chromosomal DNA by using synthetic single-stranded DNAs (ssDNA) as short as 30 bases long. This ssDNA recombination can be used to mutagenize or repair the chromosome with efficiencies that generate up to 6% recombinants among treated cells. Mechanistically, it appears that Beta protein, a Rad52-like protein, binds and anneals the ssDNA donor to a complementary single-strand near the DNA replication fork to generate the recombinant. This type of homologous recombination with ssDNA provides new avenues for studying and modifying genomes ranging from bacterial pathogens to eukaryotes. Beta protein and ssDNA may prove generally applicable for repairing DNA in many organisms.

Interleukin 3 enhances cytotoxic T lymphocyte development and class I major histocompatibility complex "re-presentation" of exogenous antigen by tumor-infiltrating antigen-presenting cells.

We show that interleukin 3 (IL-3) enhances the generation of tumor-specific cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTLs) through the stimulation of host antigen-presenting cells (APCs). The BALB/c (H-2d) spontaneous lung carcinoma line 1 was modified by gene transfection to express ovalbumin as a nominal "tumor antigen" and to secrete IL-3, a cytokine enhancing myeloid development. IL-3-transfected tumor cells are less tumorigenic than the parental cell line, and tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes isolated from these tumors contain increased numbers of tumor-specific CTLs. By using B3Z86/90.14 (B3Z), a unique T-cell hybridoma system restricted to ovalbumin/H-2b and implanting the tumors in (BALB/c x C57BL/6)F1 (H-2d/b) mice, we demonstrate that the IL-3-transfected tumors contain an increased number of a rare population of host cells that can process and "re-present" tumor antigen to CTLs. Electron microscopy allowed direct visualization of these host APCs, and these studies, along with surface marker phenotyping, indicate that these APCs are macrophage-like. The identification of these cells and their enhancement by IL-3 offers a new opportunity for tumor immunotherapy.

Towards a model-driven engineering approach of data mining

Nowadays, data mining is based on low-level specications of the employed techniques typically bounded to a specic analysis platform. Therefore, data mining lacks a modelling architecture that allows analysts to consider it as a truly software-engineering process. Here, we propose a model-driven approach based on (i) a conceptual modelling framework for data mining, and (ii) a set of model transformations to automatically generate both the data under analysis (via data-warehousing technology) and the analysis models for data mining (tailored to a specic platform). Thus, analysts can concentrate on the analysis problem via conceptual data-mining models instead of low-level programming tasks related to the underlying-platform technical details. These tasks are now entrusted to the model-transformations scaffolding.

Integrating the development of data mining and data warehouses via model-driven engineering

Data mining is one of the most important analysis techniques to automatically extract knowledge from large amount of data. Nowadays, data mining is based on low-level specifications of the employed techniques typically bounded to a specific analysis platform. Therefore, data mining lacks a modelling architecture that allows analysts to consider it as a truly software-engineering process. Bearing in mind this situation, we propose a model-driven approach which is based on (i) a conceptual modelling framework for data mining, and (ii) a set of model transformations to automatically generate both the data under analysis (that is deployed via data-warehousing technology) and the analysis models for data mining (tailored to a specific platform). Thus, analysts can concentrate on understanding the analysis problem via conceptual data-mining models instead of wasting efforts on low-level programming tasks related to the underlying-platform technical details. These time consuming tasks are now entrusted to the model-transformations scaffolding. The feasibility of our approach is shown by means of a hypothetical data-mining scenario where a time series analysis is required.

Reverse engineering as a teaching tool: the corneal topographer

Póster presentado en EDULEARN12, International Conference on Education and New Learning Technologies, Barcelona, 2nd-4th July 2012.