Käsitteen pre-conflict käsiteanalyysi

Maailmassa on tälläkin hetkellä käynnissä useita sotaan rinnastettavia aseellisia selkkauksia. Käsite sota on kuitenkin menettänyt merkitystään ja sen on korvanneet käsitteet kuten aseellinen selkkaus ja konflikti. Kansainvälisessä ja humanitaarisessa oikeudessa on epäonnistuttu käsitteiden määrittelyssä, mikä on luonut haasteita lakien ja säädösten tulkintaan. Sodankuvan muutoksen ja kansainvälisen oikeuden kehittymisen myötä myös sodan julistus on menettänyt merkityksensä, mikä on johtanut siihen, että aseellisten selkkausten ja konfliktien alkuajankohtaa on hyvin vaikea määritellä. Tässä tutkimuksessa avataan ja selvennetään käsitteen pre-conflict merkitys käsiteanalyysin avulla. Päämääränä ei ole kääntää käsitettä suomeksi, vaan tuottaa lisää tietoa käsitteestä. Tutkimusaineistona käytetään EU:n, YK:n sekä Naton virallisia tiedotteita vuonna 2011 alkaneesta Syyrian tilanteesta. Analyysin avulla saavutetaan ymmärrys EU:n, YK:n sekä Naton käsitteiden käytölle, jonka avulla käsitteen pre-conflict ominaispiirteet, säännönmukaisuudet ja syysuhteet kyetään tunnistamaan. Analyysin ensimmäisessä osassa keskitytään käsitteen osien alkuperän tunnistamiseen ja analyysin tavoitteiden asettamiseen. Seuraavassa osassa Syyrian tilanteelle suoritetaan perusteellinen analyysi, jonka avulla käsitteen ominaispiirteet kyetään tunnistamaan. Pääkäsite erotetaan sen lähikäsitteistä sota, sisällissota sekä kriisi ja sen pohjalta käsitteelle luodaan ennakkoehdot ja seuraukset. Lopuksi pragmaattisuuden tavoittelemiseksi käsitteelle luodaan malliesimerkki Syyrian tilanteeseen sitoen. Tutkielma tiivistyy empiiriseen malliin, josta käsitteen tarkasteleminen yksinkertaistuu. Laajan kirjallisuuskatsauksen tuloksena voidaan käsitteen todeta tarkoittavan aikaa ennen konfliktia. Käsite konflikti on rinnastettavissa kansainvälisessä oikeuden tunnistamaan aseelliseen selkkaukseen. Keskeisimmät tutkimustulokset liittyvät käsitteen pre-conflict ajalliseen rajaukseen. Ajallisesti pre-conflict-ajan alku rajautuu yksittäiseen tapahtumaan, minkä jälkeen tilanne ei tule päättymään ennen kuin aseellinen selkkaus on saavuttanut ratkaisunsa. Pre-conflict-aika rajaa rauhanajan sekä erilaiset yhteiskunnalliset häiriötilanteet ajasta, jolloin häiriötilanteet eskaloituvat aseelliseksi selkkaukseksi sekä aikaan jolloin tilanne on jo eskaloitunut aseelliseksi selkkaukseksi. Kohdistettaessa tutkimusta aikaan ennen aseellisen selkkauksen alkua saadaan tietoa eskaloitumisen syistä, jolloin ennaltaehkäisevät toimenpiteet olisivat hyödynnettävissä alkavissa tilanteissa. Sotilaallisiin kriiseihin tai aseellisiin selkkauksiin liittyy voimakeinojen käyttö, joita säännellään kansallisessa lainsäädännössä. Voimankäyttö perustuu osittain kansainvälisen oikeuteen ja niiden sopimuksiin, joissa säädetään muun muassa suhteellisen voimankäytön periaate. Siinä missä rauhanaikana varaudutaan erinäisiin uhkatilanteisiin ja laaditaan suunnitelmia häiriötiloja ja poikkeusoloja varten, tulisi myös varautua poistamalla käsitteisiin liittyvät epäselvyydet. Laatimalla malleja, joiden avulla alkavat tilanteet tai aseelliset selkkaukset tunnistetaan ajoissa, mahdollistetaan oikeanaikainen päätöksenteko ja ennaltaehkäisevät toimenpiteet.

Aplicação pre-emergente de misturas de alachlor com diuron e cyanazine para o controle de plantas daninhas em algodão "IAC-17"

Para se conhecer a ação de misturas de alachlor com diuron ou com cyanazine para o controle de monotiledôneas e de dicotiledôneas em cultura de algodão 'IAC-17', foi conduzido um experimento de campo, em 1981/82, em Mogi-Mirim, SP, em solo com textura areno-argilosa, onde alachlor a 2,15 kg, 2,58 kg e 3,01 kg/ha foi aplicado em mistura de tanque com diuron, a 1,00 kg/ha ou com cyanazine a 1,00 kg/ha. Os herbicidas que compuseram as misturas foram empregados isoladamente, naquelas mesmas doses. Constaram do experimento ainda, duas testemunhas mantidas sem mato por meio de capinas e uma testemunha sem capina. Os 14 tratamentos foram distribuídos em blocos ao acaso, com quatro repetições. Foram realizadas observações visuais de infestação de mato aos 14, 31, 45, 75, 82, 94 e 100 dias após a aplicação dos herbicidas. Quando, pelo menos, uma parcela do tratamento atingia 25% de reinfestação, todo o tratamento era capinado e mantido no limpo até a colheita. Foram consideradas também a altura das plantas, sua população e a produção do algodão em caroço. Os resultados obtidos mostram que alachlor a 3,01 kg/ha + diuron a 1,00 kg/ha conseguiram bons resultados de controle das plantas daninhas por período de 100 dias enquanto que alachlor a 2,58 kg/ha + diuron a 1,00 kg/ha, e alachlor a 2,58 kg/ha e a 3,01 kg/ha + cyanazine a 1,00 kg/ha persistiram com sua ação de controle por 94 dias. Os tratamentos com alachlor a 3,01 kg/ha, diuron a 1,00 kg/ha, alachlor a 2,15 kg, 2,58 kg e 3,01 kg/ha em mistura com diuron a 1,00 kg/ha, e ainda alachlor a 3,01 kg/ha + cyanazine a 1,00 kg/ha, apresentaram tendências a reduzir a altura das plantas, segundo resultados de suas análises pelo teste de Tukey a 5%, sendo que a testemunha sem capina apresentou altura significativamente inferior aos demais tratamentos. A população e a produção não foram influenciadas pelos tratamentos com herbicidas, sendo semelhantes à testemunha capinada e superiores à testemunha sem capina.

Vapaaehtoisten maahanmuuttajien pre-akkulturaatio

Anu Yijälän väitöskirja Pre-acculturation among voluntary migrants (Helsingin yliopisto 2012).

Integration of sunflower (Helianthus annuus) residues with a pre-plant herbicide enhances weed suppression in broad bean (Vicia faba)

Field trial was conducted with the aim of utilizing allelopathic crop residues to reduce the use of synthetic herbicides in broad bean (Vicia faba) fields. Sunflower residue at 600 and 1,400 g m-2 and Treflan (trifluralin) at 50, 75 and 100% of recommended dose were incorporated into the soil alone or in combination with each other. Untreated plots were maintained as a control. Herbicide application in plots amended with sunflower residue had the least total weed count and biomass, which was even better than herbicide used alone. Integration of recommended dose of Treflan with sunflower residue at 1,400 g m-² produced maximum (987.5 g m-2) aboveground biomass of broad bean, which was 74 and 36% higher than control and recommended herbicide dose applied alone, respectively. Combination of herbicide and sunflower residue appeared to better enhance pod number and yield per unit area than herbicide alone. Application of 50% dose of Treflan in plots amended with sunflower residue resulted in similar yield advantage as was noticed with 100% herbicide dose. Chromatographic analysis of residue-infested field soil indicated the presence of several phytotoxic compounds of phenolic nature. Periodic data revealed that maximum suppression in weed density and dry weight synchronized with peak values of phytotoxins observed 4 weeks after incorporation of sunflower residues. Integration of sunflower residues with lower herbicide rates can produce effective weed suppression without compromising yield as a feasible and environmentally sound approach in broad bean fields.

Reflectance indices as a diagnostic tool for weed control performed by multipurpose equipment in precision agriculture

Several tools of precision agriculture have been developed for specific uses. However, this specificity may hinder the implementation of precision agriculture due to an increasing in costs and operational complexity. The use of vegetation index sensors which are traditionally developed for crop fertilization, for site-specific weed management can provide multiple utilizations of these sensors and result in the optimization of precision agriculture. The aim of this study was to evaluate the relationship between reflectance indices of weeds obtained by the GreenSeekerTM sensor and conventional parameters used for weed interference quantification. Two experiments were conducted with soybean and corn by establishing a gradient of weed interference through the use of pre- and post-emergence herbicides. The weed quantification was evaluated by the normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) and the ratio of red to near infrared (Red/NIR) obtained using the GreenSeekerTM sensor, the visual weed control, the weed dry matter, and digital photographs, which supplied information about the leaf area coverage proportions of weed and straw. The weed leaf coverage obtained using digital photography was highly associated with the NDVI (r = 0.78) and the Red/NIR (r = -0.74). The weed dry matter also positively correlated with the NDVI obtained in 1 m linear (r = 0.66). The results indicated that the GreenSeekerTM sensor originally used for crop fertilization could also be used to obtain reflectance indices in the area between rows of crops to support decision-making programs for weed control.

Infestation of weed species in pre-planting of soybean in succession to winter crops

This study aimed to evaluate different crops and plant species planted after soybeans for one year, in terms of their potential to inhibit the occurrence of weed species. The following crops that were planted as second crop after soybeans were evaluated: (1) corn (Zea mays) planted at spacing of 90 cm between rows, intercropped with Brachiaria ruziziensis in the inter-rows; (2) sunflower (Helianthus annuus); (3) crambe (Crambe abyssinica); (4) radish (Raphanus sativus); (5) rapeseed (Brassica napus); and (6) winter fallow - no plantation after soybeans. Phytosociological characterization of weed species was carried out at the pre-planting of soybeans in the following cropping season. Estimations of relative abundance, relative frequence, relative dominance and Importance Value Index were made for each species present. Areas were also intra-characterized by the diversity coefficients of Simpson and modified Shannon-Weiner, and areas were compared using the Jaccard similarity coefficient for presence-only, by multivariate cluster analysis. In the short‑term (a single cropping season), cultivation of winter crops do contribute for lower occurrence of weed species at the pre-planting of soybeans on the subsequent cropping season. The suppressive effects depend both on the species grown in the winter and in the amount of straw left on the soil by these winter crops. Radish was more efficient in inhibiting the occurrence of weed species and rapeseed showed composition of infestation similar to that observed at the area under fallow.

Herbicide efficacy on Borreria densiflora control in pre- and post-emergence conditions

The weed Borreria densiflora is a management issue in soybean and sugarcane crops from North and Northeastern Brazil. Knowledge upon chemical control of B. densiflora contributes to the integrated management of this weed species, especially when active ingredient options become reduced due to the selection of herbicide resistant or tolerant weed species. Experiments in pre- and post-emergence of B. densiflora were conducted in greenhouse, in a randomized block design and four replications. In pre-emergence, the dose-response curve methodology was used and 7 herbicides were tested. In post-emergence, 9 herbicides at the recommended rate and 4 herbicide mixtures were tested. For pre and post-emergence conditions, evaluations were conducted at 60 and 21 days after treatment (DAT), respectively, and the variables analyzed were weed control and dry weight (%). The results showed options of pre-emergent herbicides that can be used for controlling B. densiflora, especially in sugarcane, where chemical weed control is mainly based on pre-emergent applications. In the current glyphosate resistance scenario, one should consider the use of pre-emergent herbicides within an integrated management of B. densiflora. For satisfactory post-emergence control, B. densiflora plants should be sprayed at the phenological stage of up to three pairs of leaves. Herbicide mixtures have been and will continue to be an important tool in chemical weed management, broadening the spectrum of weed control, while diversifying herbicide mechanisms of action, which helps to prevent or delay the appearance of herbicide resistance.

WEED MANAGEMENT WITH HERBICIDES APPLIED IN PRE AND POSTEMERGENCE ON CASTOR CROP

ABSTRACT The aim of this work was to evaluate the weed management with herbicides applied in pre and postemergence on castor crop. The treatments were constituted by management systems using herbicides in pre (PRE) and postemergence (POS): 1) S-metolachlor at 576 g ha-1 (PRE 1) and chlorimuron-methyl at 15 g ha-1 (POS 1); 2) PRE 1 + clomazone at 650 g ha-1(PRE 2) and POS 1; 3) PRE 1, POS 1 and halosulfuron-methyl at 112.5 g ha-1(POS 2); 4) PRE 1, POS 1 and ethoxysulfuron at 60 g ha-1 (POS 3); 5) PRE 1, POS 1 and ethoxysulfuron at 120 g ha-1 (POS 4); 6) PRE 1 + PRE 2, POS 1 and POS 2; 7) PRE 1 + PRE 2, POS 1 and POS 3; 8) PRE 1 + PRE 2, POS 1 and POS 4; 9) hand-hoeing control and 10) non-weeded control. The experimental design was randomized blocks with four replications. The association of the herbicides in PRE combined to sequence applications of chlorimuron-ethyl and halosulfuron-methyl or ethoxysulfuron in POS resulted in the highest control levels of Richardia scabraand Cyperus ferax. Mild phytointoxication symptoms to the crop were more persistent with ethoxysulfuron at 120 g ha-1. The acceptable control of the weed species and similar yield to the hand-hoeing control permitted to conclude that S-metolachlor + clomazone PRE, followed by chlorimuron-ethyl and halosulfuron-methyl POS proved to be more adequate as a weed management strategy on castor crop.

Fructan variation in the rhizophores of Vernonia herbacea (Vell.) Rusby, as influenced by temperature

The influence of climatic variations on fructan content in tropical regions is not well known. The present study deals with the effects of temperature on fructan contents in rhizophores of plants of Vernonia herbacea, a native species from the Brazilian cerrado vegetation. Intact plants and fragmented rhizophores were subjected to different temperatures under natural and controlled environmental conditions. Rhizophores of plants in pre-dormant stage (aerial parts showing some yellowish leaves) presented higher fructan content at 5oC than those kept at 25oC, whereas in dormant plants (aerial parts absent) temperature treatments did not affect fructan contents. Fragmented rhizophores obtained from dormant plants presented higher levels of fructo-polysaccharides at the end of the experiment than at the beginning of the treatment, regardless of the temperature they were stored, whereas fragments obtained from vegetative plants showed a decrease in fructan content under the same treatments. It was concluded that variations observed in fructan contents are related to the phenological state of the plants prior to the treatment rather than to extraneous temperatures they are subjected to during this stage.

Pollination ecology of Tabebuia aurea (Manso) Benth. & Hook. and T. ochracea (Cham.) Standl. (Bignoniaceae) in Central Brazil cerrado vegetation

The pollination ecology and breeding systems of Tabebuia aurea (Manso) Benth. & Hook., and T. ochracea (Cham.) Standl. were investigated in an area of cerrado vegetation in the Federal District of Brazil. These species occur sympatrically, flower massively and synchronously for a month, during the dry season (July to September). Both have diurnal anthesis, with similar floral structures, a yellow tubular corolla and produce nectar. Fourteen species of bees visited both Tabebuia species, but, only three Centris species and Bombus morio, were considered potential pollinators, because of their high frequency on the flowers and their efficiency in carrying pollen. Tests on the breeding systems of T. aurea and T. ochracea demonstrated that boths species are self-incompatible, with late-acting self-incompatibility. The proportion of fruit set from cross pollination (T. aurea 17.2% and T. ochracea 12.3%) in both species was low considering the great number of flowers displayed. This suggests a lack of maternal resources for fruit-set. The great amount of seeds per fruit (about 92 in T. aurea and 285 in T. ochracea) may represent an investment of maternal resources allocated on higher quality of fertilized ovules.

Inter-annual variations in the floristic and population structure of an herbaceous community of "caatinga" vegetation in Pernambuco, Brazil

The influence of climatic variations on the herbaceous component of the "caatinga" vegetation was examined in the state of Pernambuco, Brazil. A total of 105 1 × 1 m-plots were established, of which 35 were in a level micro-habitat, 35 in a riparian micro-habitat, and 35 in a stony microhabitat. During two consecutive years all herbaceous plants in these plots were counted, measured (height and diameter), and collected for identification. The Shannon-Wiener diversity index and the equitability were calculated for each year, as well as the density, frequency, dominance, total basal area and importance index for each species. The total annual pluviometric was 819.5 and 448.8 mm in 2002 and 2003, respectively. The herbaceous flora in the study area was composed of 71 species, of which 58 were sampled in the plots. The families with the greatest species richness were Malvaceae (8 species), Euphorbiaceae (7), Poaceae (6), Convolvulaceae (4), Fabaceae (4), and Portulacaceae (4). The diversity indices were 2.66 and 3.01 nats ind-1 in 2002 and 2003, respectively. The density, frequency, dominance and importance value of herbaceous populations, as well as, the height and diameter of plants were low in the dryer year. The riparian group was the most isolated of the microhabitats examined, both in terms of its floristic and its population structure. Annual seasonal climatic variations greatly modified these populations structure during the course of this study, emphasizing the fact that long-term studies are needed in order to better understand the dynamics of the herbaceous component of the "caatinga" vegetation.

Reproductive phenology, pollination and seed dispersal syndromes on sandstone outcrop vegetation in the "Chapada Diamantina", northeastern Brazil: population and community analyses

Vegetation on rock outcrops in the "Chapada Diamantina" (soil islands) is often aggregated and surrounded by nude rock surfaces, thus creating natural units with well defined limits. The flowering and fruiting cycles of plants on 58 soil islands at altitudes between 1,100 and 1,140 meters above sea leavel were analyzed at Mãe Inácia Peak (12°27' S and 41°28' W) in the "Chapada Diamantina", Bahia, Brazil. The presence/absence of flowering and fruiting species on each soil island, and their respective cover areas were analyzed at both the population and community levels, and the phenophases of flowering and fruiting were observed during 24 successive months. The analyses of pollination and seed dispersal syndromes indicated that animals are more important in pollination than in seed dispersal (which is predominantly by anemochory and autochory). The flowering and fruiting of plants with animal pollination syndromes were correlated with rainfall and temperature. The flowering season varied during the year according to the pollination syndrome involved: entomophily was predominant from summer through autumn, ornithophily was predominant during winter, and anemophily in the spring. The staggered timing of flowering and fruiting among different species provides a nearly continuous supply of resources for the local fauna.

Spatial variation in the structure and floristic composition of "restinga" vegetation in southeastern Brazil

We examined large-scale spatial variation of structural parameters and floristic composition in open Clusia scrub, a vegetation type of the Brazilian "restingas" (sandy coastal plain vegetation). This vegetation is organized in islands separated by sandy stretches with sparse herbaceous vegetation. We located 12 sample areas on three consecutive beach ridges, lying parallel to the coastline and at different distances from the ocean, in close proximity to two lagoons (Cabiúnas and Comprida). Each sample area was divided into three strips. We used the line intercept method to sample all woody plants ³ 50 cm tall. We used nested ANOVA to verify structural variation between different sampling scales. TWINSPAN analysis was performed to examine the variation in floristic composition between areas. The overall diversity index was 3.07. Six species are repeatedly dominant throughout the entire sampling area. There was homogeneity in relation to diversity and species richness between beach ridges but not within beach ridges. Floristic composition and structural parameters did not vary in relation to distance from the sea but floristic composition did vary as a function of proximity to Cabiúnas or Comprida lagoon. Differences in plant cover between sample areas may be related to the paleoformation of this sandy coastal plain.

Rock outcrop vegetation in Brazil: a brief overview

This paper overviews the special issue of the Brazilian Journal of Botany dedicated to "Rock outcrop vegetation in Brazil". The main topics covered by this issue are phytogeography and vegetation ecology, plant life on shallow soils, plant reproduction and auto-ecology, morpho-physiology and plant adaptation, and finally conservation and global change. This collection of studies, in addition to other recent publications on Brazilian rocky outcrop vegetation, show that measurements of most of the relevant ecological and evolutionary parameters are under way and that scientific attention is now given to most Brazilian regions. However, there are still several gaps to be bridged: 1) inselbergs and high mountains in the Amazon and the Brazilian northeast, in particular, are still largely unknown to science; 2) long-term studies are almost totally unavailable, which hinders global change monitoring and assessment; 3) national and international networking are urgently needed to speed up scientific production about such habitats.

Rock outcrop habitats in the Venezuelan Guayana lowlands: their main vegetation types and floristic components

The Guayana Shield, located in north-eastern South America, consists of a highly complex and composite mosaic of landscape elements. Amongst these, inselbergs are very conspicuous, because of their peculiar shape and their unusual associated vegetation. Geologically, these rock outcrops are part of the underlying ancient igneous-metamorphic basement and occur mainly in the lowlands of the periphery of the shield. As azonal habitats, inselbergs harbour a highly specialized flora. The characteristic vegetation is composed of lithophytic and savanna-like plant communities, as well as low dry forests. As a whole, the vegetation of an inselberg may be interpreted as a mosaic of marginal habitats. Therefore a large number of taxa find suitable niches in a quite condensed space. Gradients of soil depth and water availability are the main factors determining the floristic composition. A preliminary floristic inventory of the Venezuelan inselberg flora comprises 614 vascular plant species. 24% of them are endemic to the Guayana region, 15% are endemic to inselbergs of the Guayana region. The distribution patterns of these latter, eco-endemic species allows to distinguish a northern and a southern inselberg district. The two districts overlap in the Átures area, in the surroundings of Puerto Ayacucho, where a true centre of endemism is located. The distinction into two districts is emphasised by different phytogeographic relations. The southern inselberg district shows connections to the "tepui" flora, whereas the northern district reveals phytogeographic relations to the Caribbean region as well as to the Brazilian Shield. Possible explanations for the floristic interchange across the equator are discussed.