Migratory navigation in birds: new opportunities in an era of fast-developing tracking technology

Birds have remained the dominant model for studying the mechanisms of animal navigation for decades, with much of what has been discovered coming from laboratory studies or model systems. The miniaturisation of tracking technology in recent years now promises opportunities for studying navigation during migration itself (migratory navigation) on an unprecedented scale. Even if migration tracking studies are principally being designed for other purposes, we argue that attention to salient environmental variables during the design or analysis of a study may enable a host of navigational questions to be addressed, greatly enriching the field. We explore candidate variables in the form of a series of contrasts (e. g. land vs ocean or night vs day migration), which may vary naturally between migratory species, populations or even within the life span of a migrating individual. We discuss how these contrasts might help address questions of sensory mechanisms, spatiotemporal representational strategies and adaptive variation in navigational ability. We suggest that this comparative approach may help enrich our knowledge about the natural history of migratory navigation in birds.

Components of Shame and Eating Disturbance among Clinical and Non-Clinical Populations

OBJECTIVE: To examine the association between components of shame (characterological, behavioural and bodily) and eating disturbance.

METHOD: This was a cross sectional study of 859 female and 256 male participants from the general population [non-clinical (NCP)] and 167 female participants from an eating disordered population [clinical (CP)] completing the Experience of Shame Scale. The NCP samples also completed the Eating Attitudes Test-26, and the CP samples completed the Eating Disorder Risk Composite of the Eating Disorder Inventory-3. Participants were recruited via schools/colleges, eating disorder charities and the Internet.

RESULTS: Bodily and characterological shame were independently predictive of eating disturbance in female NCP samples (both, p?<?.001); bodily shame was uniquely predictive of eating disturbance for the male NCP (p?<?.05) and female CP samples (p?<?.001).

CONCLUSION: The aetiology of eating disturbance may be different for male and female NCP samples. The male NCP and the female CP samples displayed a similar pathway to eating disturbance. It is important to acknowledge the different components of shame associated with eating disturbance in different populations.

Substantial genetic divergence between morphologically indistinguishable populations of Fasciola suggests the possibility of cryptic speciation.

The liver flukes, Fasciola hepatica and Fasciola gigantica, are considered to be sister species and between them present a major threat worldwide to livestock production. In this study sequence data have been employed from informative regions of the nuclear and mitochondrial genomes of over 200 morphologically F. hepatica-like or F. gigantica-like flukes from Europe, sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia to assess genetic diversity. Evidence is presented for the existence of four well-separated clades: African gigantica-like flukes, Indian gigantica-like flukes, European hepatica-like flukes and African high-altitude hepatica-like flukes. Application of the Biological Species Concept to trematodes is problematic; however, the degree of separation between these groups was sufficient for them to be considered as distinct species using the four times rule for speciation.

Inherited resistance to arsenate toxicity in two populations of Lumbricus rubellus

No unequivocal evidence exists of genetically inherited resistance to metals/metalloids in field populations of earthworms. We studied cocoon production in adult Lumbricus rubellus Hoffmeister collected from an abandoned arsenic and copper mine (Devon Great Consols, Devon, UK), and abandoned tungsten mine (Carrock Fell, Cumbria, UK) and an uncontaminated cultured population. The earthworms were kept in uncontaminated soil for nine weeks. From a total of 42 L. rubellus from each site, Devon Great Consols adults produced 301 cocoons, of which 42 were viable; Carrock Fell 60 cocoons, of which 11 were viable; and the reference population 101 cocoons, of which 62 were viable. The hatchlings were collected and stored at 4 degrees C at weekly intervals. After 12 weeks, all hatchlings were transferred to clean soil and maintained at 15 degrees C for 20 weeks until they showed evidence of a clitellum. In toxicity trials, F1 generation L. rubellus were exposed to 2,000 mg As/kg as sodium arsenate or 300 mg Cu/kg as copper chloride for 28 d. The F1 generation L. rubellus from Devon Great Consols mine demonstrated resistance to arsenate but not copper. All L. rubellus from Devon Great Consols kept in soil treated with sodium arsenate remained in good condition over the 28-d period but lost condition rapidly and suffered high mortality in soil treated with copper chloride. The control population suffered high mortality in soil treated with sodium arsenate and copper chloride. Previous work has shown that field-collected adults demonstrate resistance to both arsenate and Cu toxicity under these conditions. Thus, while arsenate resistance may be demonstrated in F1 generation L. rubellus from one of the contaminated sites, Cu resistance is not. The F1 adults and F2 cocoons did not have significantly higher levels of As than the control population, with no residual As tissue burden, suggesting that resistance to As in these populations may be inherited.

Arsenic-speciation in arsenate-resistant and non-resistant populations of the earthworm, Lumbricus rubellus

Arsenic speciation was determined in Lumbricus rubellus Hoffmeister from arsenic-contaminated mine spoil sites and an uncontaminated site using HPLC-MS, HPLC-ICP-MS and XAS. It was previously demonstrated that L. rubellus from mine soils were more arsenate resistant than from the uncontaminated site and we wished to investigate if arsenic speciation had a role in this resistance. Earthworms from contaminated sites had considerably higher arsenic body burdens (maximum 1,358 mg As kg-1) compared to the uncontaminated site (maximum 13 mg As kg-1). The only organo-arsenic species found in methanol/water extracts for all earthworm populations was arsenobetaine, quantified using both HPLC-MS and HPLC-ICP-MS. Arsenobetaine concentrations were high in L. rubellus from the uncontaminated site when concentrations were expressed as a percentage of the total arsenic burden (23% mean), but earthworms from the contaminated sites with relatively low arsenic burdens also had these high levels of arsenobetaine (17% mean). As arsenic body burden increased, the percentage of arsenobetaine present decreased in a dose dependent manner, although its absolute concentration rose with increasing arsenic burden. The origin of this arsenobetaine is discussed. XAS analysis of arsenic mine L. rubellus showed that arsenic was primarily present as As(III) co-ordinated with sulfur (30% approx.), with some As(v) with oxygen (5%). Spectra for As(III) complexed with glutathione gave a very good fit to the spectra obtained for the earthworms, suggesting a role for sulfur co-ordination in arsenic metabolism at higher earthworm arsenic burdens. It is also possible that the disintegration of As(III)-S complexes may have taken place due to (a) processing of the sample, (b) storage of the extract or (c) HPLC anion exchange. HPLC-ICP-MS analysis of methanol extracts showed the presence of arsenite and arsenate, suggesting that these sulfur complexes disintegrate on extraction. The role of arsenic speciation in the resistance of L. rubellus to arsenate is considered.

Resistance to copper toxicity in populations of the earthworms Lumbricus rubellus and Dendrodrilus rubidus from contaminated mine wastes

Two arsenic and heavy metal-contaminated mine spoil sites, at Carrock Fell, Cumbria, United Kingdom, and Devon Great Consols Mine, Devon, United Kingdom, have been found to support populations of the earthworms Lumbricus rubellus Hoffmeister and Dendrodrilus rubidus (Savigny). Lumbricus rubellus and D. rubidus collected from the Devon site and an uncontaminated site were kept for 28 d in uncontaminated soil and in soil containing 750 mg/kg CuCl2, the state of the specimens being recorded using a semiquantitative assessment of earthworm health (condition index). The condition index remained high for all specimens except those of L. rubellus and D. rubidus from uncontaminated sites, which displayed 100% mortality. Bioavailability of Cu in the soils from one uncontaminated and two contaminated sites and in the uncontaminated soil treated with CuCl2 was determined using sequential extraction. Soils from Devon Great Consols had the greatest availability of Cu, Carrock Fell the lowest. Total tissue Cu for L. rubellus and D. rubidus from the contaminated sites did not change significantly for each species during the experiment. Total tissue concentrations of Cu for L. rubellus and D. rubidus from uncontaminated sites increased significantly during the first 7 d, after which mortality was 90%, making it impossible to continue the analysis.

A complete analytic theory for structure and dynamics of populations and communities spanning wide ranges in body size

The prediction and management of ecosystem responses to global environmental change would profit from a clearer understanding of the mechanisms determining the structure and dynamics of ecological communities. The analytic theory presented here develops a causally closed picture for the mechanisms controlling community and population size structure, in particular community size spectra, and their dynamic responses to perturbations, with emphasis on marine ecosystems. Important implications are summarised in non-technical form. These include the identification of three different responses of community size spectra to size-specific pressures (of which one is the classical trophic cascade), an explanation for the observed slow recovery of fish communities from exploitation, and clarification of the mechanism controlling predation mortality rates. The theory builds on a community model that describes trophic interactions among size-structured populations and explicitly represents the full life cycles of species. An approximate time-dependent analytic solution of the model is obtained by coarse graining over maturation body sizes to obtain a simple description of the model steady state, linearising near the steady state, and then eliminating intraspecific size structure by means of the quasi-neutral approximation. The result is a convolution equation for trophic interactions among species of different maturation body sizes, which is solved analytically using a novel technique based on a multiscale expansion.

Immune reactions to Bacteroides fragilis populations with three different types of capsule in a model of infection

The survival and growth of populations of the obligately anaerobic pathogenic bacterium Bacteroides fragilis enriched for large capsules (LCs), small capsules (SCs) or an electron-dense layer (EDL; non-capsulate by light microscopy) were examined in a mouse model of infection over a minimum period of 20 d. Chambers which allowed the influx of leukocytes, but not the efflux of bacteria, were implanted in the mouse peritoneal cavity. The LC and EDL populations consistently attained viable cell densities of the order of 10(8)-10(9) c.f.u. ml-1 within 24 h, whereas the SC population did not. However, after 3 d, all three bacterial populations maintained total viable numbers of 10(8)-10(9) c.f.u. ml-1 within the chambers. LC expression was selected against within 24 h in the model, the populations becoming non-capsulate by light microscopy, whereas in the SC population expression of the SC was retained by approximately 90% of the population. The EDL population remained non-capsulate by light microscopy throughout. Lymphocytes infiltrated the chambers to an equal extent for all three B. fragilis populations and at approximately 1000 times higher concentration than chambers which contained only quarter-strength Ringer's solution. The presence of neutrophils within the chambers did not cause a decrease in the total viable bacterial count. Each population elicited antibodies specific for outer-membrane proteins and polysaccharide, as detected by immunoblotting, which cross-reacted with the other populations. Differences were observed in the immunogenicity of the outer-membrane proteins within the three populations. Neutrophils were initially the predominant cell type in the chambers, but as the total leukocyte count increased with incubation time, neutrophils were outnumbered by other leukocytes.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Integrating nutrition and immunology: A new frontier

Nutrition is critical to immune defence and parasite resistance, which not only affects individual organisms, but also has profound ecological and evolutionary consequences. Nutrition and immunity are complex traits that interact via multiple direct and indirect pathways, including the direct effects of nutrition on host immunity but also indirect effects mediated by the host's microbiota and pathogen populations. The challenge remains, however, to capture the complexity of the network of interactions that defines nutritional immunology. The aim of this paper is to discuss the recent findings in nutritional research in the context of immunological studies. By taking examples from the entomological literature, we argue that insects provide a powerful tool for examining the network of interactions between nutrition and immunity due to their tractability, short lifespan and ethical considerations. We describe the relationships between dietary composition, immunity, disease and microbiota in insects, and highlight the importance of adopting an integrative and multi-dimensional approach to nutritional immunology. 

Estimation of contribution of changes in classic risk factors to trends in coronary-event rates across the WHO MONICA Project populations

Background. From the mid-1980s to mid-1990s, the WHO MONICA Project monitored coronary events and classic risk factors for coronary heart disease (CHD) in 38 populations from 21 countries. We assessed the extent to which changes in these risk factors explain the variation in the trends in coronary-event rates, across the populations. Methods. In men and women aged 35-64 years, non-fatal myocardial infarction and coronary deaths were registered continuously to assess trends in rates of coronary events. We carried out population surveys to estimate trends in risk factors. Trends in event rates were regressed on trends in risk score and in individual risk factors. Findings. Smoking rates decreased in most male populations but trends were mixed in women; mean blood pressures and cholesterol concentrations decreased, body-mass index increased, and overall risk scores and coronary-event rates decreased. The model of trends in 10-year coronary-event rates against risk scores and single risk factors showed a poor fit, but this was improved with a 4-year time lag for coronary events. The explanatory power of the analyses was limited by imprecision of the estimates and homogeneity of trends in the study populations. Interpretation. Changes in the classic risk factors seem to partly explain the variation in population trends in CHD. Residual variance is attributable to difficulties in measurement and analysis, including time lag, and to factors that were not included, such as medical interventions. The results support prevention policies based on the classic risk factors but suggest potential for prevention beyond these.

The prevalence of primary angle closure glaucoma in European derived populations: a systematic review

AIM: To estimate the prevalence of primary angle closure glaucoma (PACG) in European derived populations.

METHOD: Systematic review and modelling of PACG prevalence data from population studies. PACG was defined according to the ISGEO definition requiring structural and/or functional evidence of glaucomatous optic neuropathy. Prevalence estimates were applied to the 2010 United Nations projected population figures to estimate case numbers.

RESULTS: The prevalence of PACG in those 40 years or more is 0.4% (95% CI 0.3% to 0.5%). Age-specific prevalence values are 0.02% (CI 0.00 to 0.08) for those 40-49 years, 0.60% (0.27 to 1.00) for those 50-59 years, 0.20% (0.06 to 0.42) for those 60-69 years and 0.94% (0.63 to 1.35) for those 70 years and older. Three-quarters of all cases occur in female subjects (3.25 female to 1 male; CI 1.76 to 5.94).

CONCLUSION: This analysis provides a current evidence-based estimate of PACG prevalence in European derived populations and suggests there are 130,000 people in the UK, 1.60 million people in Europe and 581,000 people in the USA with PACG today. Accounting for ageing population structures, cases are predicted to increase by 19% in the UK, 9% in Europe and 18% in the USA within the next decade. PACG is more common than previously thought, and all primary glaucoma cases should be considered to be PACG until the anterior chamber angle is shown to be open on gonioscopy.

Assessing Historical and Current Threats to Common Frog (Rana Temporaria) Populations in Ireland

Ponds are an ephemeral feature of the landscape but their large-scale loss can have profound implications for biodiversity and the persistence of amphibian populations. We quantified rates of pond loss throughout Ireland over a period of approximately 125 yr. Environmental parameters and perceived risk factors associated with the current occurrence and density of the Common Frog, Rana temporaria, were also analyzed. The numbers of farmland ponds declined by 54% between 1887–1913 and 2005–11, with most ponds and the greatest losses
in the East, coincident with agricultural intensification and human habitation. The decline of pond numbers was significant but, at approximately 0.5% per annum, was substantially less than losses recorded in other European countries. Losses were coincident with major changes to the agricultural landscape including extensive land drainage. However, losses of pond and natural wetland habitats throughout Ireland may have been partially or wholly mitigated by a synchronous expansion of artificial field margin ditches associated with drainage projects during the mid-20th Century. The ecology of the Common Frog in Ireland was similar to its ecology elsewhere and it appears largely unaffected by pollution and disturbance. Consequently, the conservation status of the frog in Ireland was judged ‘‘favorable’’ and should remain so for the foreseeable future.

Impact of different health systems on the burden of type 2 diabetes in two populations

Objectives: Health policy directs the management of patients with chronic disease in a country, but evaluating nationwide policies is difficult, not least because of the absence of suitable comparators. This paper examines the management of patients with type 2 diabetes in two demographically comparable populations with different health care systems to see if this represents a viable approach to evaluation.

Methods: A secondary analysis of centralized prescribing databases for 2010 was undertaken to compare the levels and costs of care of patients with type 2 diabetes in Northern Ireland’s National Health Service (NHS) (NI, n = 1.8 million) which has structured care, financial incentives related to diabetes care and an emphasis on generic prescribing, with that of the Republic of Ireland (ROI, n = 4.3 million) where management of diabetes care is guided solely by clinical and other guidelines.

Results: The prevalence of treated type 2 diabetes was 3.59% in NI and 3.09% in ROI, but there were similar and high levels of prescribing of secondary cardiovascular medications. Medication costs per person for anti-diabetic, anti-obesity and cardiovascular medication were 46% higher in ROI than NI, due to differences in levels of generic prescribing.

Conclusions: These different health care systems appear to be producing similar levels of care for patients with type 2 diabetes, although at different levels of cost. The findings question the need for financial incentives in NI and highlight the large cost savings potentially accruing from a greater shift to generic prescribing in ROI. Cross-country comparison, though not without difficulties, may prove a useful adjunct to within-country analysis of policy impact.