THERE GOES THE ELECTORAL NEIGHBORHOOD: LOCAL NETWORKS, ATTRIBUTION OF RESPONSIBILITY, AND THE (UN) FAIRNESS OF ELECTIONS

During the last two decades there have been but a handful of recorded cases of electoral fraud in Latin America. However, survey research consistently shows that often citizens do not trust the integrity of the electoral process. This dissertation addresses the puzzle by explaining the mismatch between how elections are conducted and how the process is perceived. My theoretical contribution provides a double-folded argument. First, voters’ trust in their community members (“the local experience”) impacts their level of confidence in the electoral process. Since voters often find their peers working at polling stations, negative opinions about them translate into negative opinions about the election. Second, perceptions of unfairness of the system (“the global effect”) negatively impact the way people perceive the transparency of the electoral process. When the political system fails to account for social injustice, citizens lose faith in the mechanism designed to elect representatives -and ultimately a set of policies. The fact that certain groups are systematically disregarded by the system triggers the notion that the electoral process is flawed. This is motivated by either egotropic or sociotropic considerations. To test these hypotheses, I employ a survey conducted in Costa Rica, El Salvador, Honduras, and Guatemala during May/June 2014, which includes a population-based experiment. I show that Voters who trust their peers consistently have higher confidence in the electoral process. Whereas respondents who were primed about social unfairness (treatment) expressed less confidence in the quality of the election. Finally, I find that the local experience is predominant over the global effect. The treatment has a statistically significant effect only for respondents who trust their community. Attribution of responsibility for voters who are skeptics of their peers is clear and simple, leaving no room for a more diffuse mechanism, the unfairness of the political system. Finally, now I extend analysis to the Latin America region. Using data from LAPOP that comprises four waves of surveys in 22 countries, I confirm the influence of the “local experience” and the “global effect” as determinants of the level of confidence in the electoral process.

DETERMINANTS OF THE ADOPTION OF INTEGRATED SOIL FERTILITY MANAGEMENT TECHNOLOGIES IN MBALE DIVISION, KENYA

The agro-climatic conditions in western Kenya present the region as a food surplus area yet people are still reliant on food imports, with the region registering high poverty levels. Depletion of soil fertility and the resulting decline in agricultural productivity in Mbale division has led to many attempts to develop and popularize Integrated Soil Fertility Management (ISFM) technologies that could restore soil fertility. These technologies bridge the gap between high external inputs and extreme forms of traditional low external input agriculture. Some of the ISFM components used by farmers are organic and inorganic inputs and improved seeds. However, the adoption of these technologies is low. The study aimed to examine the factors that influence the adoption of ISFM technologies by smallholder farmers in Mbale division, Kenya. The study was conducted in 9 sub-locations in Mbale division. Purposive sampling was used in selecting the 80 farmers to get the data based on a farm-household survey. Self-administered questionnaires were used to collect data on the determinants of the adoption of ISFM technologies from the sampled farmers in the study area. The study sought to answer the research question: What factors influence the uptake of ISFM technologies by farmers in Mbale division? The hypothesis tested was that the adoption of ISFM technologies is not influenced by age, education, extension services, labour, off-farm income and farm size. Data was analyzed using descriptive statistics. Cross tabulation was used for examining the relationship between categorical (nominal or ordinal) variables, and the bivariate correlations procedure was used to compute the pair wise associations between scale or ordinal variables. Probit regression was used to predict the socio-economic factors influencing the adoption of ISFM technologies among smallholder farmers. Results of the study indicated that education of household head, membership in social groups, age of the household head, off-farm income and farm size were the variables that significantly influenced the adoption of ISFM technologies. The findings show that there is need for a more pro-poor focused approach to achieve sustainable soil fertility management among smallholder farmers. The findings will help farmers, extension officers, researchers and donors in identifying region-specific entry points that can help in developing innovative ISFM technologies.

CHARACTERIZATION OF POSTHARVEST PHYSIOLOGY ATTRIBUTES OF SIX COMMERCIALLY GROWN TOMATO VARIETIES IN KENYA

Tomato ( Lycopersicon esculentum Mill) is the leading vegetable in terms of production in Kenya. The Kenyan local market has a wide variety of tomato cultivars with a wide range of morphological and sensorial characteristics. However, information on the nutritional and postharvest quality of these varieties is lacking. The aim of this research was to investigate and identify tomato varieties of superior postharvest quality and recommend them to small and medium scale farmers. In this study, six tomato varieties were grown in a greenhouse and analyzed at three maturity stages (mature green, turning and red ripe). The tomatoes were analyzed at specific days after harvest and storage at room temperature (25o C). Percentage weight loss, color, respiration and ethylene production rates were analyzed to assess the postharvest quality of the tomatoes. The color was measured using a Minolta Chromameter while the respiration rate and ethylene production rates were determined using the static system approach. Color, weight loss, respiration and ethylene production rates were positively affected by storage time when harvested at the three maturity stages. The percentage weight loss of the tomato fruits was higher in the determinate varieties, and at the turning stage of maturity (3.8 %). Minor color changes were observed after storage of the tomatoes harvested at red stage for six days. Both rates of respiration and ethylene production were low, with the respiration rate ranging between 56-10 ml CO2 Kg-1h-1. The Chonto F1 variety had the highest rate of ethylene production (5.4 μL C2H4 Kg-1h-1) on the 4th day of storage after harvest at the red ripe stage. Overall, the indeterminate tomato varieties displayed better postharvest quality that can prolong the fruits shelf life for marketing. In turn, the turning stage of maturity proved to be a better stage to harvest tomatoes as the color development was more uniform.

PREVALENCE AND PREDICTORS OF VITAMIN A DEFICIENCY AMONG INFANTS IN WESTERN KENYA USING A CROSS-SECTIONAL ANALYSIS

Vitamin A (VA) deficiency (VAD) is a major nutritional public health problem among children under-5-years-old in the developing world including Kenya. A community-based cross-sectional survey among 1,630 children (aged 6-23 mos) was undertaken in Western Kenya. A questionnaire was administered to collect demographic, socio-economic and dietary intake information. Prevalence of low retinol-binding protein (RBP) concentrations was assessed using Dried Blood Spot (DBS) methodology. Analysis of RBP was carried out using rapid enzyme immunoassay (EIA) and C-reactive protein (CRP) was carried out using enzyme linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) to estimate VA and sub-clinical inflammation statuses, respectively. Values were adjusted for influence of inflammation using CRP (CRP >5 mg/L) and population prevalence of VAD (RBP <0.825 μmol/L, biologically equivalent to 0.70 μmol/L retinol) estimated. Anthropometric data gave three indices: stunting, wasting and underweight—all of which took age and sex into consideration. Mean (geometric± SD) concentration of RBP was adequate (1.56±0.79μmol/L) but the inflammation-adjusted mean (±SE) prevalence of VAD was high (20.1±1.1%) in this population. The level of CRP was within normal range (1.06±4.95 mg/L) whilst 18.4±0.9% of the children had subclinical inflammation (CRP>5 mg/L). Intake of VA capsule (VAC) by a child was a predictor of VAD with children who have not taken VA during the past 1 year prior to the survey having a 30% increased risk of VAD (OR (CI): 1.3 (1.1-1.7); p=0.025. Additionally, age of the child was a predictor with older children (18-23 mos) having a 30 % increased risk of VAD (OR (CI): 1.3 (1.1-1.9); p=0.035); the caretaker’s knowledge on VA and nutrition was also a predictor of VAD with children whose caretaker’s had poor knowledge having a 40 % increased risk of VAD (OR (CI): 1.4 (1.0-1.9); p=0.027. A child’s district of residence was also a significant predictor of VAD. Prevalence of VAD in this sample of infants was high. Predictors of VAD included child intake of VAC in the last 1 year before the survey, older children, children whose caretakers had poor VA and nutritional knowledge and a child’s district of residence. There is a need to improve knowledge on nutrition and VA of caretakers; undertake a targeted VAC distribution, particularly in children older than 1 year and above and use a sustainable food-based intervention in the areas with severe VAD.

ASSESSING THE DETERMINANTS OF TISSUE CULTURE BANANA ADOPTION IN WESTERN KENYA

In this study cross-section data was used to analyze the effect of farmers’ demographic, socioeconomic and institutional setting, market access and physical attributes on the probability and intensity of tissue culture banana (TCB) adoption. The study was carried out between July 2011 and November 2011. Both descriptive (mean, variance, promotions) and regression analysis were used in the analysis. A double hurdle regression model was fitted on the data. Using multistage sampling technique, four counties and eight sub-locations were randomly selected. Using random sampling technique, three hundred and thirty farmers were selected from a list of banana households in the selected sub-locations. The adoption level of tissue culture banana (TCB) was about 32%. The results also revealed that the likelihood of TCB adoption was significantly influenced by: availability of TCB planting material, proportion of banana income to the total farm income, per capita household expenditure and the location of the farmer in Kisii County; while those that significantly influenced the intensity of TCB adoption were: occupation of farmers, family size, labour source, farm size, soil fertility, availability/access of TCB plantlets to farmers, distance to banana market, use of manure in planting banana, access to agricultural extension services and index of TCB/non-TCB banana cultivar attributes which were scored by farmers. Compared to West Pokot County, farmers located in Bungoma County are more significantly and likely to adopt TCB technology. Therefore, the results of the study suggest that the probability of adoption and intensity of the use of TCB should be enhanced. This can be done by taking cognizance of these variables in order to meet the priority needs of the smallholder farmers who were the target group. This would lead to alleviating banana shortage in the region for enhanced food security. Subsequently, actors along the banana value chain are encouraged to target the intervention strategies based on the identified farmer, farm and institutional characteristics for enhanced impact on food provision. Opening up more TCB multiplication centres in different regions will make farmers access the TCB technology for enhanced impact on the target population.

NUTRITION AND HEALTH STATUS OF HIV-INFECTED ADULTS ON ARVS AT AMREF CLINIC KIBERA URBAN SLUM, KENYA

The health of people living with HIV and AIDS (PLWHA) is nutritionally challenged in many nations of the world. The scourge has reduced socio-economic progress globally and more so in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) where its impact has been compounded by poverty and food insecurity. Good nutrition with proper drug use improves the quality of life for those infected but it is not known how PLWHA exposed to chronic malnutrition and food shortages from developing nations adjust their nutrition with use of Anti-Retro-viral Drugs (ARVs). This study assessed nutritional status, dietary practices, and dietary management of common illnesses that hinder daily food intake by the patients and use of ARVs with food recommendations provided by the health care givers. A descriptive case study design was used to sample 120 HIV-infected patients using systematic sampling procedure. These patients sought health care from an urban slum, Kibera AMREF clinic. Data were collected by anthropometric measurements, bio-chemical analysis, semi-structured questionnaire and secondary data. The Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) and the Nutri-Survey software packages were used to analyze data. Dietary intakes of micro-nutrients were inadequate for >70% of the patients when compared to the Recommended Daily Requirements. When Body Mass Indices (BMI) were used, only 6.7% of the respondents were underweight (BMI<18.5kg/m2) and 9.2% were overweight (BMI> 25kg/m2), serum albumin test results (mean 3.34±0.06g/dl) showed 60.8% of the respondents were protein deficient and this was confirmed by low dietary protein intakes. The BMI was not related to dietary nutrient intakes, serum albumin and CD4 cell counts (p>0.05). It appeared that there was no significant difference in BMI readings at different categories of CD4 cell count (p>0.05) suggesting that the level of immunity did not affect weight gain with ARV as observed in many studies from developed countries. Malnutrition was, therefore, evident among the 60.8% of the cases as identified by serum albumin tests and food intake was not adequate (68%) for the patients as they ate once a day due to lack of food. National food and nutrition policy should incorporate food security boosting guidelines for the poor people infected with HIV and using ARVs.

PREVALENCE OF IRON DEFICIENCY ANAEMIA AND DIETARY IRON INTAKE AMONG INFANTS AGED SIX TO NINE MONTHS IN KEIYO SOUTH SUB COUNTY, KENYA

The increased prevalence of iron deficiency among infants can be attributed to the consumption of an iron deficient diet or a diet that interferes with iron absorption at the critical time of infancy, among other factors. The gradual shift from breast milk to other foods and liquids is a transition period which greatly contributes to iron deficiency anaemia (IDA). The purpose of this research was to assess iron deficiency anaemia among infants aged six to nine months in Keiyo South Sub County. The specific objectives of this study were: to establish the prevalence of infants with iron deficiency anaemia and dietary iron intake among infants aged 6 to 9 months. The cross sectional study design was adopted in this survey. This study was conducted in three health facilities in Keiyo South Sub County. The infants were selected by use of a two stage cluster sampling procedure. Systematic random sampling was then used to select a total of 244 mothers and their infants. Eighty two (82) infants were selected from Kamwosor sub-district hospital and eighty one (81) from both Nyaru and Chepkorio health facilities. Interview schedules, 24-hour dietary recall and food frequency questionnaires were used for collection of dietary iron intake. Biochemical tests were carried out by use of the Hemo-control photochrometer at the health facilities. Infants whose hemoglobin levels were less than 11g/dl were considered anaemic. Further, peripheral blood smears were conducted to ascertain the type of nutritional anaemia. Data was analyzed using the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) computer software version 17, 2009. Dietary iron intake was analyzed using the NutriSurvey 2007 computer software. Results indicated that the mean hemoglobin values were 11.3± 0.84 g/dl. Twenty one percent (21.7%) of the infants had anaemia and further 100% of peripheral blood smears indicated iron deficiency anaemia. Dietary iron intake was a predictor of iron deficiency anaemia in this study (t=-3.138; p=0.01). Iron deficiency anaemia was evident among infants in Keiyo South Sub County. The Ministry of Health should formulate and implement policies on screening for anaemia and ensure intensive nutrition education on iron rich diets during child welfare clinics.

MORPHOLOGICAL DIVERSITY OF MANGO GERMPLASM FROM THE UPPER ATHI RIVER REGION OF EASTERN KENYA: AN ANALYSIS BASED ON NON- FRUIT DESCRIPTORS

Phenotypic variation in plants can be evaluated by morphological characterization using visual attributes. Fruits have been the major descriptors for identification of different varieties of fruit crops. However, even in their absence, farmers, breeders and interested stakeholders require to distinguish between different mango varieties. This study aimed at determining diversity in mango germplasm from the Upper Athi River (UAR) and providing useful alternative descriptors for the identification of different mango varieties in the absence of fruits. A total of 20 International Plant Genetic Resources Institute (IPGRI) descriptors for mango were selected for use in the visual assessment of 98 mango accessions from 15 sites of the UAR region of eastern Kenya. Purposive sampling was used to identify farmers growing diverse varieties of mangoes. Evaluation of the descriptors was performed on-site and the data collected were then subjected to multivariate analysis including Principal Component Analysis (PCA) and Cluster analysis, one- way analysis of variance (ANOVA) and Chi square tests. Results classified the accessions into two major groups corresponding to indigenous and exotic varieties. The PCA showed the first six principal components accounting for 75.12% of the total variance. A strong and highly significant correlation was observed between the color of fully grown leaves, leaf blade width, leaf blade length and petiole length and also between the leaf attitude, color of young leaf, stem circumference, tree height, leaf margin, growth habit and fragrance. Useful descriptors for morphological evaluation were 14 out of the selected 20; however, ANOVA and Chi square test revealed that diversity in the accessions was majorly as a result of variations in color of young leaves, leaf attitude, leaf texture, growth habit, leaf blade length, leaf blade width and petiole length traits. These results reveal that mango germplasm in the UAR has significant diversity and that other morphological traits apart from fruits can be useful in morphological characterization of mango.

Water Demand and Allocation in the Mara River Basin, Kenya/Tanzania in the Face of Land Use Dynamics and Climate Variability

The Mara River Basin (MRB) is endowed with pristine biodiversity, socio-cultural heritage and natural resources. The purpose of my study is to develop and apply an integrated water resource allocation framework for the MRB based on the hydrological processes, water demand and economic factors. The basin was partitioned into twelve sub-basins and the rainfall runoff processes was modeled using the Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT) after satisfactory Nash-Sutcliff efficiency of 0.68 for calibration and 0.43 for validation at Mara Mines station. The impact and uncertainty of climate change on the hydrology of the MRB was assessed using SWAT and three scenarios of statistically downscaled outputs from twenty Global Circulation Models. Results predicted the wet season getting more wet and the dry season getting drier, with a general increasing trend of annual rainfall through 2050. Three blocks of water demand (environmental, normal and flood) were estimated from consumptive water use by human, wildlife, livestock, tourism, irrigation and industry. Water demand projections suggest human consumption is expected to surpass irrigation as the highest water demand sector by 2030. Monthly volume of water was estimated in three blocks of current minimum reliability, reserve (>95%), normal (80–95%) and flood (40%) for more than 5 months in a year. The assessment of water price and marginal productivity showed that current water use hardly responds to a change in price or productivity of water. Finally, a water allocation model was developed and applied to investigate the optimum monthly allocation among sectors and sub-basins by maximizing the use value and hydrological reliability of water. Model results demonstrated that the status on reserve and normal volumes can be improved to ‘low’ or ‘moderate’ by updating the existing reliability to meet prevailing demand. Flow volumes and rates for four scenarios of reliability were presented. Results showed that the water allocation framework can be used as comprehensive tool in the management of MRB, and possibly be extended similar watersheds.

Turning conflict into coexistence: cross-cutting ties and institutions in the agro-pastoral borderlands of Lake Naivasha basin, Kenya

The Maasai/Kikuyu agro-pastoral borderlands of Maiella and Enoosupukia, located in the hinterlands of Lake Naivasha’s agro-industrial hub, are particularly notorious in the history of ethnicised violence in the Kenya’s Rift Valley. In October 1993, an organised assault perpetrated by hundreds of Maasai vigilantes, with the assistance of game wardens and administration police, killed more than 20 farmers of Kikuyu descent. Consequently, thousands of migrant farmers were violently evicted from Enoosupukia at the instigation of leading local politicians. Nowadays, however, intercommunity relations are surprisingly peaceful and the cooperative use of natural resources is the rule rather than the exception. There seems to be a form of reorganization. Violence seems to be contained and the local economy has since recovered. This does not mean that there is no conflict, but people seem to have the facility to solve them peacefully. How did formerly violent conflicts develop into peaceful relations? How did competition turn into cooperation, facilitating changing land use? This dissertation explores the value of cross-cutting ties and local institutions in peaceful relationships and the non-violent resolution of conflicts across previously violently contested community boundaries. It mainly relies on ethnographic data collected between 2014 and 2015. The discussion therefore builds on several theoretical approaches in anthropology and the social sciences – that is, violent conflicts, cross-cutting ties and conflicting loyalties, joking relationships, peace and nonviolence, and institutions, in order to understand shared spaces that are experiencing fairly rapid social and economic changes, and characterised by conflict and coexistence. In the researched communities, cross-cutting ties and the split allegiances associated with them result from intermarriages, land transactions, trade, and friendship. By institutions, I refer to local peace committees, an attempt to standardise an aspect of customary law, and Nyumba Kumi, a strategy of anchoring community policing at the household level. In 2010, the state “implanted” these grassroots-level institutions and conferred on them the rights to handle specific conflicts and to prevent crime. I argue that the studied groups utilise diverse networks of relationships as adaptive responses to landlessness, poverty, and socio-political dynamics at the local level. Material and non-material exchanges and transfers accompany these social and economic ties and networks. In addition to being instrumental in nurturing a cohesive social fabric, I argue that such alliances could be thought of as strategies of appropriation of resources in the frontiers – areas that are considered to have immense agricultural potential and to be conducive to economic enterprise. Consequently, these areas are continuously changed and shaped through immigration, population growth, and agricultural intensification. However, cross-cutting ties and intergroup alliances may not necessarily prevent the occurrence or escalation of conflicts. Nevertheless, disputes and conflicts, which form part of the social order in the studied area, create the opportunities for locally contextualised systems of peace and non-violence that inculcate the values of cooperation, coexistence, and restraint from violence. Although the neo-traditional institutions (local peace committees and Nyumba Kumi) face massive complexities and lack the capacity to handle serious conflicts, their application of informal constraints in dispute resolution provides room for some optimism. Notably, the formation of ties and alliances between the studied groups, and the use of local norms and values to resolve disputes, are not new phenomena – they are reminiscent of historical patterns. Their persistence, particularly in the context of Kenya, indicates a form of historical continuity, which remains rather “undisturbed” despite the prevalence of ethnicised political economies. Indeed, the formation of alliances, which are driven by mutual pursuit of commodities (livestock, rental land, and agricultural produce), markets, and diversification, tends to override other identities. While the major thrust of social science literature in East Africa has focused on the search for root causes of violence, very little has been said about the conditions and practices of cooperation and non-violent conflict resolution. In addition, situations where prior violence turned into peaceful interaction have attracted little attention, though the analysis of such transitional phases holds the promise of contributing to applicable knowledge on conflict resolution. This study is part of a larger multidisciplinary project, “Resilience in East African Landscapes” (REAL), which is a Marie Curie Actions Innovative Training Networks (ITN) project. The principal focus of this multidisciplinary project is to study past, present, and future thresholds and sustainable trajectories in human-landscape interactions in East Africa over the last millennia. While other individual projects focus on long-term ecosystem dynamics and societal interactions, my project examines human-landscape interactions in the present and the very recent past (i.e. the period in which events and processes were witnessed or can still be recalled by today’s population). The transition from conflict to coexistence and from competition to cooperative use of previously violently contested land resources is understood here as enhancing adaptation in the face of social-political, economic, environmental, and climatic changes. This dissertation is therefore a contribution to new modes of resilience in human-landscape interactions after a collapse situation.

Assessing the impact of agricultural drought on maize prices in Kenya with the approach of the SPOT-VEGETATION NDVI remote sensing

The high cost of maize in Kenya is basically driven by East African regional commodity demand forces and agricultural drought. The production of maize, which is a common staple food in Kenya, is greatly affected by agricultural drought. However, calculations of drought risk and impact on maize production in Kenya is limited by the scarcity of reliable rainfall data. The objective of this study was to apply a novel hyperspectral remote sensing method to modelling temporal fluctuations of maize production and prices in five markets in Kenya. SPOT-VEGETATION NDVI time series were corrected for seasonal effects by computing the standardized NDVI anomalies. The maize residual price time series was further related to the NDVI seasonal anomalies using a multiple linear regression modelling approach. The result shows a moderately strong positive relationship (0.67) between residual price series and global maize prices. Maize prices were high during drought periods (i.e. negative NDVI anomalies) and low during wet seasons (i.e. positive NDVI anomalies). This study concludes that NDVI is a good index for monitoring the evolution of maize prices and food security emergency planning in Kenya. To obtain a very strong correlation for the relationship between the wholesale maize price and the global maize price, future research could consider adding other price-driving factors into the regression models.

Sensor psychrometric approaches to mitigating aflatoxins in maize dried on farms in Kenya

Kenia liegt in den Äquatorialtropen von Ostafrika und ist als ein weltweiter Hot-Spot für Aflatoxinbelastung insbesondere bei Mais bekannt. Diese toxischen und karzinogenen Verbindungen sind Stoffwechselprodukte von Pilzen und so insbesondere von der Wasseraktivität abhängig. Diese beeinflusst sowohl die Trocknung als auch die Lagerfähigkeit von Nahrungsmitteln und ist somit ein wichtiger Faktor bei der Entwicklung von energieeffizienten und qualitätsorientierten Verarbeitungsprozessen. Die vorliegende Arbeit hat sich zum Ziel gesetzt, die Veränderung der Wasseraktivität während der konvektiven Trocknung von Mais zu untersuchen. Mittels einer Optimierungssoftware (MS Excel Solver) wurde basierend auf sensorerfassten thermo-hygrometrischen Daten der gravimetrische Feuchteverlust von Maiskolben bei 37°C, 43°C und 53°C vorausberechnet. Dieser Bereich stellt den Übergang zwischen Niedrig- und Hochtemperaturtrocknung dar. Die Ergebnisse zeigen deutliche Unterschiede im Verhalten der Körner und der Spindel. Die Trocknung im Bereich von 35°C bis 45°C kombiniert mit hohen Strömungsgeschwindigkeiten (> 1,5 m / s) begünstigte die Trocknung der Körner gegenüber der Spindel und kann daher für eine energieeffiziente Trocknung von Kolben mit hohem Anfangsfeuchtegehalt empfohlen werden. Weitere Untersuchungen wurden zum Verhalten unterschiedlicher Schüttungen bei der bei Mais üblichen Satztrocknung durchgeführt. Entlieschter und gedroschener Mais führte zu einem vergrößerten Luftwiderstand in der Schüttung und sowohl zu einem höheren Energiebedarf als auch zu ungleichmäßigerer Trocknung, was nur durch einen erhöhten technischen Aufwand etwa durch Mischeinrichtungen oder Luftumkehr behoben werden könnte. Aufgrund des geringeren Aufwandes für die Belüftung und die Kontrolle kann für kleine landwirtschaftliche Praxisbetriebe in Kenia daher insbesondere die Trocknung ganzer Kolben in ungestörten Schüttungen empfohlen werden. Weiterhin wurde in der Arbeit die Entfeuchtung mittels eines Trockenmittels (Silikagel) kombiniert mit einer Heizquelle und abgegrenztem Luftvolumen untersucht und der konventionellen Trocknung gegenüber gestellt. Die Ergebnisse zeigten vergleichbare Entfeuchtungsraten während der ersten 5 Stunden der Trocknung. Der jeweilige Luftzustand bei Verwendung von Silikagel wurde insbesondere durch das eingeschlossene Luftvolumen und die Temperatur beeinflusst. Granulierte Trockenmittel sind bei der Maistrocknung unter hygienischen Gesichtspunkten vorteilhaft und können beispielsweise mit einfachen Öfen regeneriert werden, so dass Qualitätsbeeinträchtigungen wie bei Hochtemperatur- oder auch Freilufttrocknung vermieden werden können. Eine hochwertige Maistrocknungstechnik ist sehr kapitalintensiv. Aus der vorliegenden Arbeit kann aber abgeleitet werden, dass einfache Verbesserungen wie eine sensorgestützte Belüftung von Satztrocknern, der Einsatz von Trockenmitteln und eine angepasste Schüttungshöhe praktikable Lösungen für Kleinbauern in Kenia sein können. Hierzu besteht, ggf. auch zum Aspekt der Verwendung regenerativer Energien, weiterer Forschungsbedarf.

Local Understandings of Soil Fertility, Rainfall and Conservation Agriculture in Laikipia, Kenya: A Qualitative Analysis.

Conservation Agriculture (CA) is mostly referred to in the literature as having three principles at the core of its identity: minimum soil disturbance, permanent organic soil cover and crop diversity. This farming package has been described as suitable to improve yields and livelihoods of smallholders in semi-arid regions of Kenya, which since the colonial period have been heavily subjected to tillage. Our study is based on a qualitative approach that followed local meanings and understandings of soil fertility, rainfall and CA in Ethi and Umande located in the semi-arid region of Laikipia, Kenya. Farm visits, 53 semistructured interviews, informal talks were carried out from April to June 2015. Ethi and Umande locations were part of a resettlement programme after the independence of Kenya that joined together people coming from different farming contexts. Since the 1970–80s, state and NGOs have been promoting several approaches to control erosion and boost soil fertility. In this context, CA has also been promoted preferentially since 2007. Interviewees were well acquainted with soil erosion and the methods to control it. Today, rainfall amount and distribution are identified as major constraints to crop performance. Soil fertility is understood as being under control since farmers use several methods to boost it (inorganic fertilisers, manure, terraces, agroforestry, vegetation barriers). CA is recognised to deliver better yields but it is not able to perform well under severe drought and does not provide yields as high as ‘promised’ in promotion campaigns. Moreover, CA is mainly understood as “cultivating with chemicals”, “kulima na dawa”, in kiswahili. A dominant view is that CA is about minimum tillage and use of pre-emergence herbicides. It is relevant to reflect about what kind of CA is being promoted and if elements like soil cover and crop rotation are given due attention. CA based on these two ideas, minimum tillage and use of herbicides, is hard to stand as a programme to be promoted and up-scaled. Therefore CA appears not to be recognised as a convincing approach to improve the livelihoods in Laikipia.

Citizen journalism as social networking : reporting the 2007 Australian Federal Election

One of the perceived Achilles heels of online citizen journalism is its perceived inability to conduct investigative and first-hand reporting. A number of projects have recently addressed this problem, with varying success: the U.S.-based Assignment Zero was described as "a highly satisfying failure" (Howe 2007), while the German MyHeimat.de appears to have been thoroughly successful in attracting a strong community of contributors, even to the point of being able to generate print versions of its content, distributed free of charge to households in selected German cities. In Australia, citizen journalism played a prominent part in covering the federal elections held on 24 November 2007; news bloggers and public opinion Websites provided a strong counterpoint to the mainstream media coverage of the election campaign (Bruns et al., 2007). Youdecide2007.org, a collaboration between researchers at Queensland University of Technology and media practitioners at the public service broadcaster SBS, the public opinion site On Line Opinion, and technology company Cisco Systems, was developed as a dedicated space for a specifically hyperlocal coverage of the election campaign in each of Australia's 150 electorates from the urban sprawls of Sydney and Brisbane to the sparsely populated remote regions of outback Australia. YD07 provided training materials for would-be citizen journalists and encouraged them to contribute electorate profiles, interview candidates, and conduct vox-pops with citizens in their local area. The site developed a strong following especially in its home state of Queensland, and its interviewers influenced national public debate by uncovering the sometimes controversial personal views of mainstream and fringe candidates. At the same time, the success of YD07 was limited by external constraints determined by campaign timing and institutional frameworks. As part of a continuing action research cycle, lessons learnt from Youdecide2007.org are going to be translated into further iterations of the project, which will cover the local government elections in the Australian state of Queensland, to be held in March 2008, and developments subsequent to these elections. This paper will present research outcomes from the Youdecide2007.org project. In particular, it will examine the roles of staff contributors and citizen journalists in attracting members, providing information, promoting discussion, and fostering community on the site: early indications from a study of interaction data on the site indicate notably different contribution patterns and effects for staff and citizen participants, which may point towards the possibility of developing more explicit pro-am collaboration models in line with the Pro-Am phenomenon outlined by Leadbeater & Miller (2004). The paper will outline strengths and weaknesses of the Youdecide model and highlight requirements for the successful development of active citizen journalism communities. In doing so, it will also evaluate the feasibility of hyperlocal citizen journalism approaches, and their interrelationship with broader regional, state, and national journalism in both its citizen and industrial forms.