Electrostatically self-assembled nanoparticles based on biomolecules

In this work, two different systems were investigated to develop fundamental understanding of the self-assembly behavior of polyelectrolytes and small organic counterions with a certain geometry. Complexes formed were characterized by light scattering in solution, as well as UV-Vis spectroscopy, analytical ultracentrifugation, gel electrophoresis, zeta potential and IR spectroscopy. The morphologies of the aggregates were observed by AFM in dried state on surface. The charge ratio, the valence and the structure of the counterion were shown to represent key parameters in the complexation. The influence of polyelectrolyte type and molecular weights was also determined for the structure formed.rnrnOne system was mainly focused on the association of double-strand DNA with non-intercalating divalent and tetravalent organic counterions. The other model system involved linear NaPSS and oligolysines. In addition, various influences on the morphology of the charged self-assembly complexes in AFM studies were discussed. It was shown that electrostatic self-assembly of DNA and non-intercalating counterions as well as of a linear synthetic polyelectrolyte with oligolysine counterions that can build mutual hydrogen bonds can yield supramolecular aggregates of a defined size. Various morphologies (flower-like, rod-like, toroidal and spherical) of the assemblies were obtained for different combinations of polyelectrolyte and counterions. Results presented in this work are of importance for the fundamental understanding of the association behavior of various polyelectrolytes and organic counterions. The selection of biopolymers for the study may give an opportunity to transfer the basic research results into biological applications, such as gene therapy or drug delivery.rn

Stress & structure of thin polymer brush films

Polymer brushes have unique properties with a large variety of possible applications ranging from responsive coatings and drug delivery to lubrication and sensing. For further development a detailed understanding of the properties is needed. Established characterization methods, however, only supply information of the surface. Experimental data about the inner “bulk” structure of polymer brushes is still missing.rnScattering methods under grazing incidence supply structural information of surfaces as well as structures beneath it. Nanomechanical cantilevers supply stress data, which is giving information about the forces acting inside the polymer brush film. In this thesis these two techniques are further developed and used to deepen the understanding of polymer brushes. rnThe experimental work is divided into four chapters. Chapter 2 deals with the preparation of polymer brushes on top of nanomechanical cantilever sensors as well as large area sample by using a “grafting-to” technique. The further development of nanomechanical cantilever readout is subject of chapter 3. In order to simplify cantilever sensing, a method is investigated which allows one to perform multiple bending experiments on top of a single cantilever. To do so, a way to correlate different curvatures is introduced as well as a way to conveniently locate differently coated segments. In chapter 4 the change in structure upon solvent treatment of mixed polymer brushes is investigated by using scattering methods and nanomechanical cantilevers amongst others. This allows one to explain the domain memory effect, which is typically found in such systems. Chapter 5 describes the implementation of a phase shifting interferometer - used for readout of nanomechanical cantilevers - into the µ-focused scattering beamline BW4, allowing simultaneous measurements of stress and structure information. The last experimental chapter 6 deals with the roughness correlation in polymer brushes and its dependence on the chain tethered density.rnIn summary, the thesis deals with utilization of new experimental techniques for the investigation of polymer brushes and further development of the techniques themselves.rn

Einfluss verschiedener nanopartikulärer Systeme auf die zelluläre Aufnahme und Zytotoxizität

Die vorliegende Dissertation untersucht Nanopartikel und Nanokapseln aus verschiedenen Materialien mit verschiedenen Modifikationen für einen zielgerichteten Medikamententransport (Drug Targeting). Obwohl bisher zahlreiche Nanopartikel und -kapseln synthetisiert wurden, besteht nach wie vor hinsichtlich der zellulären Verträglichkeit, Biokompatibilität und Aufnahme kein allumfassendes Verständnis. Mit Hilfe der in dieser Arbeit vorgestellten Untersuchungen und Ergebnissen soll ein Beitrag zur Schließung dieser Lücke geleistet werden.rnIm Rahmen der vorliegenden Dissertation wurde der Einfluss der Herstellungsmaterialien PS, PLLA, PMMA, Biomakromoleküle (BSA, DNA), ggf. stabilisiert durch HPMA-LMA-Copolymere und neu-synthetisierte Surfmere, der Formmodifikationen Streckung und Kristallisierung, der Oberflächenmodifikationen mittels verschiedener Tenside und PEG auf die zelluläre Aufnahme und Verträglichkeit hin untersucht.rnZusammenfassend lässt sich die Aussage treffen, dass zahlreiche Materialien zur Herstellung von Trägersystemen geeignet sind und sich als biokompatibel und nicht-zytotoxisch erwiesen haben, sich jedoch stark hinsichtlich der Aufnahmeeffizienz in verschiedene Zelllinien unterscheiden. rnIm ersten Abschnitt (Kapitel 5.1) wurden in der ersten und zweiten Untersuchung auf allgemeine Parameter, die die Aufnahme von Nanopartikeln beeinflussen, eingegangen. Hier wurde der Einfluss des Alters von PLLA-Partikeln auf die zelluläre Aufnahme und Toxizität untersucht. Es konnte gezeigt werden, dass mit zunehmender Materialalterung die zelluläre Aufnahme abnimmt. Eine Zytotoxizität konnte nicht gezeigt werden.rnWeiterhin wurde der Einfluss des FCS-Gehalts des Zell-Mediums auf die zelluläre Aufnahme von PMMA-Partikeln untersucht. Es konnte gezeigt werden, dass mit einer steigenden FCS-Konzentration eine Abnahme der zellulären Aufnahme von PMMA-Partikeln einhergeht. Die höchste zelluläre Aufnahme konnte bei einem FCS-Gehalt des Zellmediums von 0,05% verzeichnet werden. rnIm zweiten Abschnitt (Kapitel 5.2) wurde die Stabilisierung von Nanopartikeln mittels neusynthetisierter Tenside und deren Einfluss auf die Zelle-Nanopartikel-Interaktionen untersucht. Dazu wurde zum einen die Oberflächenfunktionalisierung von Nanopartikeln mit Hilfe neu-synthetisierter „Surfmere“ und deren Einfluss auf die zelluläre Aufnahme und Toxizität untersucht. Die hergestellten Surfmere bewirken gleichzeitig eine Stabilisierung und Funktionalisierung der Nanopartikeloberfläche mit Phosphonatgruppen. Hier wurden kovalente „Surfmer“ stabilisierte Nanopartikel mit Tensid- (SDP) stabilisierten Nanopartikeln verglichen. Zudem wurden dialysierte Nanopartikel mit nicht-dialysierten verglichen. Bezüglich der zellulären Aufnahme konnte für die mittels Dialyse gereinigten Nanopartikel eine gute Aufnahme ohne Unterschiede zwischen den kovalent und nicht-kovalent Phosphonat-funktionalisierten Partikeln beobachtet werden. Die ungereinigten, SDP-stabilisierte, nicht-kovalent gebundene Nanopartikel zeigten hingegen eine bis zu 30% stärkere Aufnahme in die HeLa-Zellen und hMSCs.rnWeiterhin der Einsatz von mit HPMA-LMA-Copolymeren stabilisierte Polystyrol- und PLLA-Partikel, die den Einsatz von Tensiden während des Miniemulsionsprozesses überflüssig machen, untersucht. Auch hier konnte keine Zytotoxizität nachgewiesen werden. Die Aufnahme in HeLa-Zellen scheint mehr von der Größe der Nanopartikel als vom verwendeten Material und in hMSCs mehr von den Oberflächeneigenschaften der Nanopartikel abzuhängen.rnIm dritten Abschnitt (Kapitel 5.3) wird auf die Möglichkeit der Formmodifikation von Polystyrol-Partikeln und deren Einfluss auf die Nanopartikel-Zelle-Interaktionen eingegangen. Es geht dabei um die Aufnahme und Zytotoxizität von verstreckten (elongierten) Polystyrol-Partikeln im Vergleich zu sphärischen Nanopartikeln, sowie die Aufnahme und Zytotoxizität von kristallinen Polystyrol-Partikeln in verschiedene Zelllinien. Bei den verstreckten Partikeln nimmt die Aufnahme-Effizienz in HeLa-Zellen und hMSCs mit zunehmender Verstreckung ab. Eine Zytotoxizität konnte für keinen der erwähnten Nanopartikel nachgewiesen werden. Bei den Polystyrol-Partikeln unterschiedlicher Taktizität zeigen die kristallierten Polystyrol-Partikel eine geringfügig besser Aufnahme-Rate als die nicht-kristallierten Polystyrol-Partikel. Dabei zeigen die nach dem Herstellungsprozess mittels der Lösemittelverdampfungstechnik der wässrigen Phase entnommenen Partikel eine bessere Aufnahme als die nach der Verdampfung des Chloroforms verfügbaren Partikel. Insgesamt konnte jedoch für alle Polystyrol-Partikel trotz der unterschiedlichen Taktizitäten nach der Aufnahme in HeLa-Zellen und hMSCs mittels Durchflusszytometrie hohe Fluoreszenz-Intensitäten verzeichnet werden. Setzt man hohe Fluoreszenz-Intensitäten bei in Zellen aufgenommenen Partikeln mit guten Aufnahmeraten gleich, sind die hier dargestellten Aufnahmeraten als sehr gut zu bezeichnen. rnAuf Nanosysteme mit einer reduzierten zellulären Aufnahme wird im letzten Abschnitt (Kapitel 5.4) eingegangen. Dabei wird zum einen die unterschiedliche Oberflächenmodifikation von Polystyrol-Partikeln mit dem Co-Monomer PEG-MA und den Tensiden SDS und Lutensol AT50 untersucht. Von PEG-MA wurden zudem verschiedene Molekulargewichte (Mn=300 g•mol-1 und Mn=2080 g•mol-1) und verschiedene Konzentrationen (1,5%, 5%, 10%) eingesetzt. Ein Teil der Partikel wurde mit SDS und der andere Teil mit Lutensol AT50 hergestellt. In einem weiteren Schritt wurde das jeweilig gegenteilige Tensid (statt SDS Lutensol AT50 und umgekehrt) eingesetzt, um zu überprüfen, ob sich der zuvor beobachtete Effekt umkehren lässt. Anschließend wurde ein erst mit SDS stabilisierter Nanopartikel (BR01) mit verschiedenen Lutensol AT50-Anteilen (5%, 10%, 25%, 50%, 100%) redispergiert. Die effizienteste Aufnahme zeigte der unmodifizierte, mit SDS stabilisierte Nanopartikel BR01, die niedrigste der ebenfalls unmodifizierte, mit Lutensol AT50 stabilisierte Nanopartikel BR02. Eine steigende Konzentration des PEG-MA Mn=300 g•mol-1 hemmt die Aufnahme von mit SDS stabilisierten Partikeln konstant. Für PEG-MA Mn=2080 g•mol-1 konnte hingegen kein Einfluss nachgewiesen werden. Für die mit Lutensol AT50 stabilisierten Partikel konnte kein Einfluss von PEG-MA nachgewiesen werden. Daraus resultiert, dass der Einsatz von physikalisch adsorbiertem Lutensol AT50 die zelluläre Aufnahme effektiver hemmt als der Einsatz von kovalent gebundenem PEG-MA unterschiedlicher Kettenlänge.rnDer Einsatz von mit Biomakromolekülen hergestellten Nanokapseln, die mit zwei verschiedenen Tensiden (SDS und Lutensol AT50) stabilisiert wurden, wurde im Weiteren näher untersucht. Bei den mit SDS stabilisierten Kapseln erwiesen sich die mit ssDNA hergestellten Kapseln BN-54 und BN-55 als leicht toxisch für die HeLa-Zellen. Dagegen sind alle eingesetzten, mit Lutensol AT50 redispergierten Nanokapseln sowohl für HeLa-Zellen als auch für hMSCs zytotoxisch. Hier ist die toxische Wirkung auf das nicht-ionische Tensid Lutensol AT50 zurückzuführen. Eine zelluläre Aufnahme konnte für keine mit Biomakromolekülen hergestellten Nanokapsel nachgewiesen werden.rnDen Abschluss der Untersuchungen bildet die vergleichende Analyse der in dieser Arbeit mit dem Fluoreszenzfarbstoff PMI versehenen Partikeln hinsichtlich deren Aufnahme in HeLa-Zellen und hMSCs und deren zytotoxische Auswirkungen. In der vergleichenden Analyse werden die zuvor vorgestellten Ergebnisse für PMI-Partikeln nochmal im Kontext betrachtet. Dabei erwies sich sowohl für die HeLa-Zellen als auch für die hMSCs, dass die meisten Partikel eine geringe bis keine zelluläre Aufnahme zeigen. Eine gute Aufnahme konnte nur für wenige Nanopartikel (vor allem für die kristallinen Nanopartikel) verzeichnet werden. Eine Korrelation zwischen der Aufnahmeeffizienz und der Zytotoxizität konnte nicht nachgewiesen werden. rn

Photoactive nanodevices for potential biological applications

Biological systems are complex and highly organized architectures governed by noncovalent interactions, which are responsible for molecular recognition, self-assembly, self-organization, adaptation and evolution processes. These systems provided the inspiration for the development of supramolecular chemistry, that aimed at the design of artificial multicomponent molecular assemblies, namely supramolecular systems, properly designed to perform different operations: each constituting unit performs a single act, whereas the entire supramolecular system is able to execute a more complex function, resulting from the cooperation of the constituting components. Supramolecular chemistry deals with the development of molecular systems able to mimic naturally occurring events, for example complexation and self-assembly through the establishment of noncovalent interactions. Moreover, the application of external stimuli, such as light, allows to perform these operations in a time- and space-controlled manner. These systems can interact with biological systems and, thus, can be applied for bioimaging, therapeutic and drug delivery purposes. In this work the study of biocompatible supramolecular species able to interact with light is presented. The first part deals with the photophysical, photochemical and electrochemical characterization of water-soluble blue emitting triazoloquinolinium and triazolopyridinium salts. Moreover, their interaction with DNA has been explored, in the perspective of developing water-soluble systems for bioimaging applications. In the second part, the effect exerted by the presence of azobenzene-bearing supramolecular species in liposomes, inserted both in the phospholipid bilayer and in the in the aqueous core of vesicles has been studied, in order to develop systems able to deliver small molecules and ions in a photocontrolled manner. Moreover, the versatility of azobenzene and its broad range of applications have been highlighted, since conjugated oligoazobenzene derivatives proved not to be adequate to be inserted in the phospholipid bilayer of liposomes, but their electrochemical properties made them interesting candidates as electron acceptor materials for photovoltaic applications.

Development of a system measuring adhesion forces in powder collectives

Fine powders commonly have poor flowability and dispersibility due to interparticle adhesion that leads to formation of agglomerates. Knowing about adhesion in particle collectives is indispensable to gain a deeper fundamental understanding of particle behavior in powders. Especially in pharmaceutical industry a control of adhesion forces in powders is mandatory to improve the performance of inhalation products. Typically the size of inhalable particles is in the range of 1 - 5 µm. In this thesis, a new method was developed to measure adhesion forces of particles as an alternative to the established colloidal probe and centrifuge technique, which are both experimentally demanding, time consuming and of limited practical applicability. The new method is based on detachment of individual particles from a surface due to their inertia. The required acceleration in the order of 500 000 g is provided by a Hopkinson bar shock excitation system and measured via laser vibrometry. Particle detachment events are detected on-line by optical video microscopy. Subsequent automated data evaluation allows obtaining a statistical distribution of particle adhesion forces. To validate the new method, adhesion forces for ensembles of single polystyrene and silica microspheres on a polystyrene coated steel surface were measured under ambient conditions. It was possible to investigate more than 150 individual particles in one experiment and obtain adhesion values of particles in a diameter range of 3 - 13 µm. This enables a statistical evaluation while measuring effort and time are considerably lower compared to the established techniques. Measured adhesion forces of smaller particles agreed well with values from colloidal probe measurements and theoretical predictions. However, for the larger particles a stronger increase of adhesion with diameter was observed. This discrepancy might be induced by surface roughness and heterogeneity that influence small and large particles differently. By measuring adhesion forces of corrugated dextran particles with sizes down to 2 µm it was demonstrated that the Hopkinson bar method can be used to characterize more complex sample systems as well. Thus, the new device will be applicable to study a broad variety of different particle-surface combinations on a routine basis, including strongly cohesive powders like pharmaceutical drugs for inhalation.

Evaluation of polymeric nanocarriers for RNA delivery

Therapeutic RNAs, especially siRNAs, are a promising approach for treating diseases like cancer, neurodegenerative disorders and viral infections. Their application, however, is limited due to a lack of safe and efficient delivery systems. Nanosized carriers with the ability to either complex or entrap RNA species are a promising option. rn rn rnSuch a carrier has to meet a lot of requirements, some of which are even partly contradictive. Understanding and controlling the interplay between the different demands would advance a strategic design at an early stage of therapeutic development. rn rn This work is centered around a systematic evaluation of polyplexes, such carriers that are able to complex siRNA due to electrostatic interactions. Six structurally and chemically diverse candidates, poly-L-lysine brushes, block copolymers, cationic peptides, cationic lipids, nanohydrogels, and manganese oxide particles, were tested in a simultaneous fashion. The assays, mostly based on fluorescently labeled siRNA, ranged from the evaluation of polyplex formation and stability to in vitro parameters like cellular uptake and knockdown capability. The analysis from several perspectives offered insight into the interplay between the specifications of one polyplex. Assessing the different carriers under exactly the same experimental conditions also allowed conclusions about favourable traits and starting points for further optimization. This comparative approach also revealed weaknesses of some of the conventional protocols, which were therefore contrasted with alternative methods. In addition, in vitro knockdown assays were optimized and the impact of fluorescently labeled siRNA on knockdown efficiency was assessed. rn rn rn A second class of carriers, which share the ability to entrap siRNA inside their matrix, are briefly addressed. Nanocapsules, dextran particles and liposomes were assessed for basic features like siRNA encapsulation and knockdown capability. rn rn rn rn In an approach towards targeted delivery of RNA, liposomes were endowed with mitochondriotropic tags. Despite successful functionalization, no colocalization between the liposomal cargo and mitochondria was so far observed, which makes further optimization necessary.

Novel magnetic iron oxide nanoparticles coated with poly(ethylene imine)-g-poly(ethylene glycol) for potential biomedical application: synthesis, stability, cytotoxicity and MR imaging

Magnetic iron oxide nanoparticles have found application as contrast agents for magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and as switchable drug delivery vehicles. Their stabilization as colloidal carriers remains a challenge. The potential of poly(ethylene imine)-g-poly(ethylene glycol) (PEGPEI) as stabilizer for iron oxide (γ-Fe₂O₃) nanoparticles was studied in comparison to branched poly(ethylene imine) (PEI). Carrier systems consisting of γ-Fe₂O₃-PEI and γ-Fe₂O₃-PEGPEI were prepared and characterized regarding their physicochemical properties including magnetic resonance relaxometry. Colloidal stability of the formulations was tested in several media and cytotoxic effects in adenocarcinomic epithelial cells were investigated. Synthesized γ-Fe₂O₃ cores showed superparamagnetism and high degree of crystallinity. Diameters of polymer-coated nanoparticles γ-Fe₂O₃-PEI and γ-Fe₂O₃-PEGPEI were found to be 38.7 ± 1.0 nm and 40.4 ± 1.6 nm, respectively. No aggregation tendency was observable for γ-Fe₂O₃-PEGPEI over 12 h even in high ionic strength media. Furthermore, IC₅₀ values were significantly increased by more than 10-fold when compared to γ-Fe₂O₃-PEI. Formulations exhibited r₂ relaxivities of high numerical value, namely around 160 mM⁻¹ s⁻¹. In summary, novel carrier systems composed of γ-Fe₂O₃-PEGPEI meet key quality requirements rendering them promising for biomedical applications, e.g. as MRI contrast agents.

Drug-induced respiratory depression: an integrated model of drug effects on the hypercapnic and hypoxic drive

Drug-induced respiratory depression is a common side effect of the agents used in anesthesia practice to provide analgesia and sedation. Depression of the ventilatory drive in the spontaneously breathing patient can lead to severe cardiorespiratory events and it is considered a primary cause of morbidity. Reliable predictions of respiratory inhibition in the clinical setting would therefore provide a valuable means to improve the safety of drug delivery. Although multiple studies investigated the regulation of breathing in man both in the presence and absence of ventilatory depressant drugs, a unified description of respiratory pharmacodynamics is not available. This study proposes a mathematical model of human metabolism and cardiorespiratory regulation integrating several isolated physiological and pharmacological aspects of acute drug-induced ventilatory depression into a single theoretical framework. The description of respiratory regulation has a parsimonious yet comprehensive structure with substantial predictive capability. Simulations relative to the synergistic interaction of the hypercarbic and hypoxic respiratory drive and the global effect of drugs on the control of breathing are in good agreement with published experimental data. Besides providing clinically relevant predictions of respiratory depression, the model can also serve as a test bed to investigate issues of drug tolerability and dose finding/control under non-steady-state conditions.

On the modeling of drug induced respiratory depression in the non-steady-state

The ability of anesthetic agents to provide adequate analgesia and sedation is limited by the ventilatory depression associated with overdosing in spontaneously breathing patients. Therefore, quantitation of drug induced ventilatory depression is a pharmacokinetic-pharmacodynamic problem relevant to the practice of anesthesia. Although several studies describe the effect of respiratory depressant drugs on isolated endpoints, an integrated description of drug induced respiratory depression with parameters identifiable from clinically available data is not available. This study proposes a physiological model of CO2 disposition, ventilatory regulation, and the effects of anesthetic agents on the control of breathing. The predictive performance of the model is evaluated through simulations aimed at reproducing experimental observations of drug induced hypercarbia and hypoventilation associated with intravenous administration of a fast-onset, highly potent anesthetic mu agonist (including previously unpublished experimental data determined after administration of 1 mg alfentanil bolus). The proposed model structure has substantial descriptive capability and can provide clinically relevant predictions of respiratory inhibition in the non-steady-state to enhance safety of drug delivery in the anesthetic practice.

Quantum modeling of bioconjugated nanomaterials

In recent years, the bio-conjugated nanostructured materials have emerged as a new class of materials for the bio-sensing and medical diagnostics applications. In spite of their multi-directional applications, interfacing nanomaterials with bio-molecules has been a challenge due to somewhat limited knowledge about the underlying physics and chemistry behind these interactions and also for the complexity of biomolecules. The main objective of this dissertation is to provide such a detailed knowledge on bioconjugated nanomaterials toward their applications in designing the next generation of sensing devices. Specifically, we investigate the changes in the electronic properties of a boron nitride nanotube (BNNT) due to the adsorption of different bio-molecules, ranging from neutral (DNA/RNA nucleobases) to polar (amino acid molecules). BNNT is a typical member of III-V compounds semiconductors with morphology similar to that of carbon nanotubes (CNTs) but with its own distinct properties. More specifically, the natural affinity of BNNTs toward living cells with no apparent toxicity instigates the applications of BNNTs in drug delivery and cell therapy. Our results predict that the adsorption of DNA/RNA nucleobases on BNNTs amounts to different degrees of modulation in the band gap of BNNTs, which can be exploited for distinguishing these nucleobases from each other. Interestingly, for the polar amino acid molecules, the nature of interaction appeared to vary ranging from Coulombic, van der Waals and covalent depending on the polarity of the individual molecules, each with a different binding strength and amount of charge transfer involved in the interaction. The strong binding of amino acid molecules on the BNNTs explains the observed protein wrapping onto BNNTs without any linkers, unlike carbon nanotubes (CNTs). Additionally, the widely varying binding energies corresponding to different amino acid molecules toward BNNTs indicate to the suitability of BNNTs for the biosensing applications, as compared to the metallic CNTs. The calculated I-V characteristics in these bioconjugated nanotubes predict notable changes in the conductivity of BNNTs due to the physisorption of DNA/RNA nucleobases. This is not the case with metallic CNTs whose transport properties remained unaltered in their conjugated systems with the nucleobases. Collectively, the bioconjugated BNNTs are found to be an excellent system for the next generation sensing devices.

Drug targeting using OX7-immunoliposomes: correlation between Thy1.1 antigen expression and tissue distribution in the rat

OX7 monoclonal antibody F((ab')2) fragments directed against Thy1.1 antigen can be used for drug targeting by coupling to the surface of drug-loaded liposomes. Such OX7-conjugated immunoliposomes (OX7-IL) were used recently for drug delivery to rat glomerular mesangial cells, which are characterized by a high level of Thy1.1 antigen expression. In the present study, the relationship between OX7-IL tissue distribution and target Thy1.1 antigen localization in different organs in rat was investigated. Western blot and immunohistofluorescence analysis revealed a very high Thy1.1 expression in brain cortex and striatum, thymus and renal glomeruli. Moderate Thy1.1 levels were observed in the collecting ducts of kidney, lung tissue and spleen. Thy1.1 was not detected in liver and heart. There was a poor correlation between Thy1.1 expression levels and organ distribution of fluorescence- or (14)C-labeled OX7-IL. The highest overall organ density of OX7-IL was observed in the spleen, followed by lung, liver and kidney. Heart and brain remained negative. With respect to intra-organ distribution, a localized and distinct signal was observed in renal glomerular mesangial cells only. As a consequence, acute pharmacological (i.e. toxic) effects of doxorubicin-loaded OX7-IL were limited to renal glomeruli. The competition with unbound OX7 monoclonal antibody F((ab')2) fragments demonstrated that the observed tissue distribution and acute pharmacological effects of OX7-IL were mediated specifically by the conjugated OX7 antibody. It is concluded that both the high target antigen density and the absence of endothelial barriers are needed to allow for tissue-specific accumulation and pharmacological effects of OX7-IL. The liposomal drug delivery strategy used is therefore specific toward renal glomeruli and can be expected to reduce the risk of unwanted side effects in other tissues.

Osteoinductive implants: the mise-en-scène for drug-bearing biomimetic coatings

In orthopaedic and dental implantology, novel tools and techniques are being sought to improve the regeneration of bone tissue. Numerous attempts have been made to enhance the osteoconductivity of titanium prostheses, including modifications in their surface properties and coating with layers of calcium phosphate. The technique whereby such layers are produced has recently undergone a revolutionary change, which has had profound consequences for their potential to serve as drug-carrier systems. Hitherto, calcium phosphate layers were deposited upon the surfaces of metal implants under highly unphysiological physical conditions, which precluded the incorporation of proteinaceous osteoinductive drugs. These agents could only be adsorbed, superficially, upon preformed layers. Such superficially adsorbed molecules are released too rapidly within a biological milieu to be effective in their osteoinductive capacity. Now, it is possible to deposit calcium phosphate layers under physiological conditions of temperature and pH by the so-called biomimetic process, during which bioactive agents can be coprecipitated. Since these molecules are integrated into the inorganic latticework, they are released gradually in vivo as the layer undergoes degradation. This feature enhances the capacity of these coatings to act as a carrier system for osteogenic agents.

A compact and portable deposition chamber to study nanoparticles in air-exposed tissue

BACKGROUND Epidemiological studies show that elevated levels of particulate matter in ambient air are highly correlated with respiratory and cardiovascular diseases. Atmospheric particles originate from a large number of sources and have a highly complex and variable composition. An assessment of their potential health risks and the identification of the most toxic particle sources would require a large number of investigations. Due to ethical and economic reasons, it is desirable to reduce the number of in vivo studies and to develop suitable in vitro systems for the investigation of cell-particle interactions. METHODS We present the design of a new particle deposition chamber in which aerosol particles are deposited onto cell cultures out of a continuous air flow. The chamber allows for a simultaneous exposure of 12 cell cultures. RESULTS Physiological conditions within the deposition chamber can be sustained constantly at 36-37°C and 90-95% relative humidity. Particle deposition within the chamber and especially on the cell cultures was determined in detail, showing that during a deposition time of 2 hr 8.4% (24% relative standard deviation) of particles with a mean diameter of 50 nm [mass median diameter of 100 nm (geometric standard deviation 1.7)] are deposited on the cell cultures, which is equal to 24-34% of all charged particles. The average well-to-well variability of particles deposited simultaneously in the 12 cell cultures during an experiment is 15.6% (24.7% relative standard deviation). CONCLUSIONS This particle deposition chamber is a new in vitro system to investigate realistic cell-particle interactions at physiological conditions, minimizing stress on the cell cultures other than from deposited particles. A detailed knowledge of particle deposition characteristics on the cell cultures allows evaluating reliable dose-response relationships. The compact and portable design of the deposition chamber allows for measurements at any particle sources of interest.

Novel Use of Dual Anti-Inflammatory Therapy to Overcome Drug Resistance and Improve Functional Recovery Following Spinal Cord Injury

Over 1.2 million Americans are currently living with a traumatic spinal cord injury (SCI). Despite the need for effective therapies, there are currently no proven effective treatments that can improve recovery of function in SCI patients. Many therapeutic compounds have shown promise in preclinical models of SCI, but all of these have fallen short in clinical trials. P-glycoprotein (Pgp) is an active transporter expressed on capillary endothelial cell membranes at the blood-spinal cord barrier (BSCB). Pgp limits passive diffusion of blood-borne drugs into the CNS, by actively extruding drugs from the endothelial cell membrane. Pgp can become pathologically up-regulated, thus greatly impeding therapeutic drug delivery (‘multidrug resistance’). Importantly, many drugs that have been evaluated for the treatment of SCI are Pgp substrates. We hypothesized that Pgp-mediated drug resistance diminishes the delivery and efficacy of neuroprotective drugs following SCI. We observed a progressive, spatial spread of Pgp overexpression within the injured spinal cord. To assess Pgp function, we examined spinal cord uptake of systemically-delivered riluzole, a drug that is currently being evaluated in clinical trials as an SCI intervention. Blood-to-spinal cord riluzole penetration was reduced following SCI in wild-type but not Pgp-null rats, highlighting a critical role for Pgp in mediating spinal cord drug resistance after injury. Others have shown that pro-inflammatory signaling drives Pgp up-regulation in cancer and epilepsy. We have detected inflammation in both acutely- and chronically-injured spinal cord tissue. We therefore evaluated the ability of the dual COX-/5-LOX inhibitor licofelone to attenuate Pgp-mediated drug resistance following SCI. Licofelone treatment both reduced spinal cord Pgp levels and enhanced spinal cord riluzole bioavailability following SCI. Thus, we propose that licofelone may offer a new combinatorial treatment strategy to enhance spinal cord drug delivery following SCI. Additionally, we assessed the ability of licofelone, riluzole, or both to enhance recovery of locomotor function following SCI. We found that licofelone treatment conferred a significant improvement in hindlimb function that was sustained through the end of the study. In contrast, riluzole did not improve functional outcome. We therefore conclude that licofelone holds promise as a potential neuroprotective intervention for SCI.

Perceptual distortion modeling for side-by-side 3D video delivery

A frame-level distortion model based on perceptual features of the human visual system is proposed to improve the performance of unequal error protection strategies and provide better quality of experience to users in Side-by-Side 3D video delivery systems.