Study of the turbulence in the air-side and water-side boundary layers in experimental laboratory wind induced surface waves

This study detailed the structure of turbulence in the air-side and water-side boundary layers in wind-induced surface waves. Inside the air boundary layer, the kurtosis is always greater than 3 (the value for normal distribution) for both horizontal and vertical velocity fluctuations. The skewness for the horizontal velocity is negative, but the skewness for the vertical velocity is always positive. On the water side, the kurtosis is always greater than 3, and the skewness is slightly negative for the horizontal velocity and slightly positive for the vertical velocity. The statistics of the angle between the instantaneous vertical fluctuation and the instantaneous horizontal velocity in the air is similar to those obtained over solid walls. Measurements in water show a large variance, and the peak is biased towards negative angles. In the quadrant analysis, the contribution of quadrants Q2 and Q4 is dominant on both the air side and the water side. The non-dimensional relative contributions and the concentration match fairly well near the interface. Sweeps in the air side (belonging to quadrant Q4) act directly on the interface and exert pressure fluctuations, which, in addition to the tangential stress and form drag, lead to the growth of the waves. The water drops detached from the crest and accelerated by the wind can play a major role in transferring momentum and in enhancing the turbulence level in the water side.On the air side, the Reynolds stress tensor's principal axes are not collinear with the strain rate tensor, and show an angle α σ≈=-20°to-25°. On the water side, the angle is α σ≈=-40°to-45°. The ratio between the maximum and the minimum principal stresses is σ a/σ b=3to4 on the air side, and σ a/σ b=1.5to3 on the water side. In this respect, the air-side flow behaves like a classical boundary layer on a solid wall, while the water-side flow resembles a wake. The frequency of bursting on the water side increases significantly along the flow, which can be attributed to micro-breaking effects - expected to be more frequent at larger fetches. © 2012 Elsevier B.V.

Detecting air pockets for architectural concrete quality assessment using visual sensing

Air pockets, one kind of concrete surface defects, are often created on formed concrete surfaces during concrete construction. Their existence undermines the desired appearance and visual uniformity of architectural concrete. Therefore, measuring the impact of air pockets on the concrete surface in the form of air pockets is vital in assessing the quality of architectural concrete. Traditionally, such measurements are mainly based on in-situ manual inspections, the results of which are subjective and heavily dependent on the inspectors’ own criteria and experience. Often, inspectors may make different assessments even when inspecting the same concrete surface. In addition, the need for experienced inspectors costs owners or general contractors more in inspection fees. To alleviate these problems, this paper presents a methodology that can measure air pockets quantitatively and automatically. In order to achieve this goal, a high contrast, scaled image of a concrete surface is acquired from a fixed distance range and then a spot filter is used to accurately detect air pockets with the help of an image pyramid. The properties of air pockets (the number, the size, and the occupation area of air pockets) are subsequently calculated. These properties are used to quantify the impact of air pockets on the architectural concrete surface. The methodology is implemented in a C++ based prototype and tested on a database of concrete surface images. Comparisons with manual tests validated its measuring accuracy. As a result, the methodology presented in this paper can increase the reliability of concrete surface quality assessment

The structure of turbulent stratified and premixed methane/air flames I: Non-swirling flows

A series of flames in a turbulent methane/air stratified swirl burner is presented. The degree of stratification and swirl are systematically varied to generate a matrix of experimental conditions, allowing their separate and combined effects to be investigated. Non-swirling flows are considered in the present paper, and the effects of swirl are considered in a companion paper (Part II). A mean equivalence ratio of φ=0.75 is used, with φ for the highest level of stratification spanning 0.375-1.125. The burner features a central bluff-body to aid flame stabilization, and the influence of the induced recirculation zone is also considered. The current work focuses on non-swirling flows where two-component particle image velocimetry (PIV) measurements are sufficient to characterize the main features of the flow field. Scalar data obtained from Rayleigh/Raman/CO laser induced fluorescence (CO-LIF) line measurements at 103μm resolution allow the behavior of key combustion species-CH 4, CO 2, CO, H 2, H 2O and O 2-to be probed within the instantaneous flame front. Simultaneous cross-planar OH-PLIF is used to determine the orientation of the instantaneous flame normal in the scalar measurement window, allowing gradients in temperature and progress variable to be angle corrected to their three dimensional values. The relationship between curvature and flame thickness is investigated using the OH-PLIF images, as well as the effect of stratification on curvature.The main findings are that the behavior of the key combustion species in temperature space is well captured on the mean by laminar flame calculations regardless of the level of stratification. H 2 and CO are significant exceptions, both appearing at elevated levels in the stratified flames. Values for surface density function and by extension thermal scalar dissipation rate are found to be substantially lower than laminar values, as the thickening of the flame due to turbulence dominates the effect of increased strain. These findings hold for both premixed and stratified flames. The current series of flames is proposed as an interesting if challenging set of test cases for existing and emerging turbulent flame models, and data are available on request. © 2012 The Combustion Institute.

The structure of turbulent stratified and premixed methane/air flames II: Swirling flows

Experimental results are presented from a series of turbulent methane/air stratified flames stabilized on a swirl burner. Nine operating conditions are considered, systematically varying the level of stratification and swirl while maintaining a lean global mean equivalence ratio of φ̄=0.75. Scalar data are obtained from Rayleigh/Raman/CO laser induced fluorescence (CO-LIF) line measurements at 103μm resolution, allowing the behavior of the major combustion species-CH 4, CO 2, CO, H 2, H 2O and O 2-to be probed within the instantaneous flame front. The corresponding three-dimensional surface density function and thermal scalar dissipation rate are investigated, along with geometric characteristics of the flame such as curvature and flame thickness. Hydrogen and carbon monoxide levels within the flame brush are raised by stratification, indicating models with laminar premixed flame chemistry may not be suitable for stratified flames. However, flame surface density, scalar dissipation and curvature all appear insensitive to the degree of stratification in the flames surveyed. © 2012 The Combustion Institute.

Comparison of stochastic methods for control in air traffic management

This paper provides a direct comparison of two stochastic optimisation techniques (Markov Chain Monte Carlo and Sequential Monte Carlo) when applied to the problem of conflict resolution and aircraft trajectory control in air traffic management. The two methods are then also compared to another existing technique of Mixed-Integer Linear Programming which is also popular in distributed control. © 2011 IFAC.

Multiply conditioned analyses of stratification in highly swirling methane/air flames

The effects of stratification on a series of highly swirling turbulent flames under globally lean conditions (φg=0.75) are investigated using a new high-spatial resolution multi-scalar dataset. This dataset features two key properties: high spatial resolution which approaches the 60 micron optical limit of the measurement system, and a wavelet oversampling methodology which significantly reduces the influence of noise. Furthermore, the very large number of realizations (30,000) acquired in the stratified cases permits statistically significant results to be obtained even after aggressive conditioning is applied. Data are doubly conditioned on equivalence ratio and the degree of stratification across the flame in each instantaneous realization. The influence of stoichiometry is limited by conditioning on the equivalence ratio at the location of peak CO mass fraction, which is shown to be a good surrogate for the location of peak heat release rate, while the stratification is quantified using a linear gradient in equivalence ratio across the instantaneous flame front. This advanced conditioning enables robust comparisons with the baseline lean premixed flame. Species mass fractions of both carbon monoxide and hydrogen are increased in temperature space under stratified conditions. Stratification is also shown to significantly increase thermal gradients, yet the derived three-dimensional flame surface density is shown to be relatively insensitive to stratification. Whilst the presence of instantaneous stratification broadens the curvature distribution relative to the premixed case, the degree of broadening is not significantly influenced by the range of global stratification ratios examined in this study. © 2012 The Combustion Institute.

Boundary integral technique for the numerical modelling of the air flow for the Aaberg exhaust system

A boundary integral technique has been developed for the numerical simulation of the air flow for the Aaberg exhaust system. For the steady, ideal, irrotational air flow induced by a jet, the air velocity is an analytical function. The solution of the problem is formulated in the form of a boundary integral equation by seeking the solution of a mixed boundary-value problem of an analytical function based on the Riemann-Hilbert technique. The boundary integral equation is numerically solved by converting it into a system of linear algebraic equations, which are solved by the process of the Gaussian elimination. The air velocity vector at any point in the solution domain is then computed from the air velocity on the boundary of the solution domains.

Long range exhaustion-a mathematical model for the axisymmetric air flow of a local exhaust ventilation hood assisted by a turbulent radial jet

Abstract-Mathematical modelling techniques are used to predict the axisymmetric air flow pattern developed by a state-of-the-art Banged exhaust hood which is reinforced by a turbulent radial jet flow. The high Reynolds number modelling techniques adopted allow the complexity of determining the hood's air Bow to be reduced and provide a means of identifying and assessing the various parameters that control the air Bow. The mathematical model is formulated in terms of the Stokes steam function, ψ, and the governing equations of fluid motion are solved using finite-difference techniques. The injection flow of the exhaust hood is modelled as a turbulent radial jet and the entrained Bow is assumed to be an inviscid potential flow. Comparisons made between contours of constant air speed and centre-line air speeds deduced from the model and all the available experimental data show good agreement over a wide range of typical operating conditions. | Mathematical modelling techniques are used to predict the axisymmetric air flow pattern developed by a state-of-the-art flanged exhaust hood which is reinforced by a turbulent radial jet flow. The high Reynolds number modelling techniques adopted allow the complexity of determining the hood's air flow to be reduced and provide a means of identifying and assessing the various parameters that control the air flow. The mathematical model is formulated in terms of the Stokes steam function, Ψ, and the governing equations of fluid motion are solved using finite-difference techniques. The injection flow of the exhaust hood is modelled as a turbulent radial jet and the entrained flow is assumed to be an inviscid potential flow. Comparisons made between contours of constant air speed and centre-line air speeds deduced from the model and all the available experimental data show good agreement over a wide range of typical operating conditions.

Numerical computation of laminar flow in a heated rotating cavity with an axial throughflow of air

A heated rotating cavity with an axial throughflow of cooling air is used as a model for the flow in the cylindrical cavities between adjacent discs of a high-pressure gas-turbine compressor. In an engine the flow is expected to be turbulent, the limitations of this laminar study are fully realised but it is considered an essential step to understand the fundamental nature of the flow. The three-dimensional, time-dependent governing equations are solved using a code based on the finite volume technique and a multigrid algorithm. The computed flow structure shows that flow enters the cavity in one or more radial arms and then forms regions of cyclonic and anticyclonic circulation. This basic flow structure is consistent with existing experimental evidence obtained from flow visualization. The flow structure also undergoes cyclic changes with time. For example, a single radial arm, and pair of recirculation regions can commute to two radial arms and two pairs of recirculation regions and then revert back to one. The flow structure inside the cavity is found to be heavily influenced by the radial distribution of surface temperature imposed on the discs. As the radial location of the maximum disc temperature moves radially outward, this appears to increase the number of radial arms and pairs of recirculation regions (from one to three for the distributions considered here). If the peripheral shroud is also heated there appear to be many radial arms which exchange fluid with a strong cyclonic flow adjacent to the shroud. One surface temperature distribution is studied in detail and profiles of the relative tangential and radial velocities are presented. The disc heat transfer is also found to be influenced by the disc surface temperature distribution. It is also found that the computed Nusselt numbers are in reasonable accord over most of the disc surface with a correlation found from previous experimental measurements. © 1994, MCB UP Limited.

Shroud heat transfer measurements from a rotating cavity with an axial throughflow of air

The paper discusses measurements of heat transfer obtained from the inside surface of the peripheral shroud. The experiments were carried out on a rotating cavity, comprising two 0.985-m-dia disks, separated by an axial gap of 0.065 m and bounded at the circumference by a carbon fiber shroud. Tests were conducted with a heated shroud and either unheated or heated disks. When heated, the disks had the same temperature level and surface temperature distribution. Two different temperature distributions were tested; the surface temperature either increased, or decreased with radius. The effects of disk, shroud, and air temperature levels were also studied. Tests were carried out for the range of axial throughflow rates and speeds: 0.0025 ≤ m ≤ 0.2 kg/s and 12.5 ≤ Ω ≤ 125 rad/s, respectively. Measurements were also made of the temperature of the air inside the cavity. The shroud Nusselt numbers are found to depend on a Grashof number, which is defined using the centripetal acceleration. Providing the correct reference temperature is used, the measured Nusselt numbers also show similarity to those predicted by an established correlation for a horizontal plate in air. The heat transfer from the shroud is only weakly affected by the disk surface temperature distribution and temperature level. The heat transfer from the shroud appears to be affected by the Rossby number. A significant enhancement to the rotationally induced free convection occurs in the regions 2 ≤ Ro ≤ 4 and Ro ≥ 20. The first of these corresponds to a region where vortex breakdown has been observed. In the second region, the Rossby number may be sufficiently large for the central throughflow to affect the shroud heat transfer directly. Heating the shroud does not appear to affect the heat transfer from the disks significantly.