Balance Between Investment Protection and Sustainable Development in BITs: the Example of Switzerland

The objective of this article is to examine how substantive and procedural rights granted to foreign investors by Swiss bits are gradually being balanced with social and environmental provisions. Switzerland has enjoyed a long bit practice, as it signed its first treaty with Tunisia fifty years ago. Swiss bits rely on the post-establishment model and include usual standards of treatment. From 1981, they also systematically provide for a dispute settlement mechanism for disputes arising between an investor and a host State. Since the Switzerland - El Salvador bit in 1994, sustainable development concerns have been expressly inserted in some Swiss bits, as well as in several recent free trade agreements. Provisions on this theme are however far from being systematic in Switzerland's bit practice and essentially remain declaratory in nature. The trend towards wider inclusion of sustainable development provisions in bits still faces several practical and political challenges.

Protection of pancreatic beta-cells by high density lipoproteins

SUMMARYThe incidence of type 2 diabetes (T2D) is increasing worldwide and is linked to the enhancement of obesity. The principal cause of T2D development is insulin resistance, which lead to the increase of insulin production by the pancreatic beta-cells. In a pathological environment, namely dyslipidaemia, hyperglycaemia and inflammation, beta-cell compensation will fail in more vulnerable cells and diabetes will occur. High Density Lipoproteins (HDLs), commonly named "good cholesterol" are known to be atheroprotective. Low levels of HDLs are associated with increased prevalence of cardiovascular disease but are also an independent risk factor for the development of T2D. HDLs were demonstrated to protect pancreatic beta-cells against several stresses. However the molecular mechanisms of the protection are unknown and the objectives of this work were to try to elucidate the way how HDLs protect. The first approach was a broad screening of genes regulated by the stress and HDLs. A microarray analysis was performed on beta-cells stressed by serum deprivation and rescued by HDLs. Among the genes regulated, we focused on 4E-BP1, a cap-dependent translational inhibitor. In addition, HDLs were also found to protect against several other stresses.Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress is a mechanism that may play a role in the onset of T2D. The unfolded protein response (UPR) is a physiological process that aims at maintaining ER homeostasis in conditions where the protein folding and secretion is perturbed. Specific signalling pathways are involved in the increase of folding, export and degradation capacity of the ER. However, in case where the stress is prolonged, this mechanism turns to be pathological, by inducing cell death effector pathways, leading to beta-cell apoptosis. In our study, we discovered that HDLs were protective against ER stress induced by drugs and physiological stresses such as saturated free fatty acids. HDLs protected beta-cells by promoting ER homeostasis via the improvement of the folding and trafficking od proteins from the ER to the Golgi apparatus.Altogether our results suggest that HDLs are important for beta-cell function and survival, by protecting them from several stresses and acting on ER homeostasis. This suggests that attempt in keeping normal HDLs levels or function in patients is crucial to lessen the development of T2D.RÉSUMÉL'incidence du diabète de type 2 est en constante augmentation et est fortement liée à l'accroissement du taux d'obésité. La cause principale du diabète de type 2 est la résistance à l'insuline, qui entraîne une surproduction d'insuline par les cellules bêta pancréatiques. Dans un environnement pathologique associé à l'obésité (dyslipidémie, hyperglycémie et inflammation), les cellules bêta les plus vulnérables ne sont plus capables de compenser en augmentant leur production d'insuline, dysfonctionnent, ce qui conduit à leur mort par apoptose. Les lipoprotéines de hautes densités (HDLs), communément appelées (( bon cholestérol », sont connues pour leurs propriétés protectrices contre l'athérosclérose. Des niveaux bas de HDLs sanguins sont associés au risque de développer un diabète de type 2. Les HDLs ont également montré des propriétés protectrices contre divers stresses dans la cellule bêta. Cependant, les mécanismes de protection restent encore inconnus et l'objectif de ce travail a été d'investiguer les mécanismes moléculaires de protection des HDLs. La première approche choisie a été une étude du profil d'expression génique par puce à ADN afin d'identifier les gènes régulés par le stress et les HDLs. Parmi les gènes régulés, notre intérêt s'est porté sur 4E-BP1, un inhibiteur de la traduction coiffe- dépendante, dont l'induction par le stress était corrélée avec une augmentation de l'apoptose. Suite à cette étude, les HDLs ont également montrés un rôle protecteur contre d'autres stresses. Il s'agit particulièrement du stress du réticulum endoplasmique (RE), qui est un mécanisme qui semble jouer un rôle clé dans le développement du diabète. L'UPR (« Unfolded Protein Response ») est un processus physiologique tendant à maintenir l'homéostasie du réticulum endoplasmique, organelle prépondérante pour la fonction des cellules sécrétrices, notamment lorsqu'elle est soumise à des conditions extrêmes telles que des perturbations de la conformation tertiaire des protéines ou de la sécrétion. Dans ces cas, des voies de signalisation moléculaires sont activées, ce qui mène à l'exportation des protéines mal repliées, à leur dégradation et à l'augmentation de l'expression de chaperonnes capables d'améliorer le repliement des protéines mal formées. Toutefois, en cas de stress persistant, ce mécanisme de protection s'avère être pathologique. En induisant des voies de signalisation effectrices de l'apoptose, il conduit finalement au développement du diabète. Dans cette étude, nous avons démontré que les HDLs étaient capables de protéger la cellule bêta contre le stress du RE induits par des inhibiteurs (thapsigargine, tunicamycine) ou des stresses physiologiques tels que les acides gras libres. Les HDLs ont la capacité d'améliorer l'homéostasie du RE, notamment en favorisant le repliement et le transfert des protéines du RE à l'appareil de Golgi.En résumé, ces données suggèrent que les HDLs sont bénéfiques pour la survie des cellules bêta soumises à des stresses impliqués dans le développement du diabète, notamment en restaurant l'homéostasie du RE. Ces résultats conduisent à soutenir que le maintien des taux de cholestérol joue un rôle important dans la limitation de l'incidence du diabète.

Effects of employment protection and product market regulations on the Italian labor market

Labor market regulations have often being blamed for high and persistentunemployment in Europe, but evidence on their impact remains mixed. Morerecently, attention has turned to the impact of product market regulationson employment growth. This paper analyzes how labor and product marketregulations interact to affect turnover and employment. We present a matchingmodel which illustrates how barriers to entry in the product market mitigatethe impact of labor market deregulation. We, then, use the Italian SocialSecurity employer-employee panel to study the interaction between barriersto entry and dismissal costs. We exploit the fact that costs for unjustdismissals in Italy increased for firms below 15 employees relative to biggerfirms after 1990. We find that the increase in dismissal costs after 1990decreased accessions and separations in small relative to big firms,especially for women. Moreover, consistent with our model, we find evidencethat the increase in dismissal costs had smaller effects on turnover for womenin sectors faced with strict product market regulations.

The political economy of employment protection

This paper develops a model of job creation and job destruction in agrowing economy with embodied technical progress, that we use toanalyze the political support for employment protection legislationssuch as the ones that are observed in most European countries.We analyze the possibility of Condorcet cycles due to the fact thatworkers about to become unemployed prefer both an increase and areduction in firing costs over the status quo. Despite this problem, we show the existence of local, and sometimes global majority winners.In voting in favour of employment protection, incumbent employeestrade off lower living standards (because employment protectionmaintains workers in less productive activities) against longer job duration. We show that the gains from, and consequently the politicalsupport for employment protection (as defined by maximunjob tenure) are larger, the lower the rate of creative destruction and the largerthe worker's bargaining power. Numerical simulations suggest a hump-shaped response of firing costs to these variables, as well as negative impact of exogeneous turnover on employment protection.

A community survey of sun exposure, sunburn and sun protection.

AIM: To describe outdoor activities, sun protection behaviours and the experience of sunburn in a sample of New Zealanders during summer weekends of 1994. METHODS: 1243 respondents to a telephone survey provided information regarding their outdoor activities for the 5 hour period around midday of the previous Saturday and Sunday. The sample was drawn from those aged 15 to 65 years in the five centres of Auckland, Hamilton, Wellington, Christchurch and Dunedin. Respondents provided information on sun exposure, sunburn, sun protection and beliefs about tanning, as well as background demographic information, skin type and previous experience of sunburn. RESULTS: 12% of the sample (or 17% of all those outdoors) reported being sunburned on the preceding weekend, and those sunburned tended to be men, and to be under age 35 years. The face, neck and limbs were the areas most frequently reported as burned. Sporting activities and beach or water activities were associated with the highest number of episodes of burning. Overall 38% of those outside reported wearing a hat and 32% reported the use of a sunscreen. Positive attitudes to tanning were quite common and probably present the main target for change in the community. CONCLUSION: On any sunny weekend in summer about three-quarters of adult New Zealanders will be out in the sun for relatively long periods of time, and many will get sunburned. The reduction of such harmful sun exposures remains an important public health goal.

Employment protection, international specialization and innovation

We develop a model to analyse the implications of firing costs on incentivesfor R&D and international specialization. The Key idea is paying the firingcost, the country with a rigid labor market will tend to produce relativelysecure goods, at a late stage of their product life cycle.Under international trade, an international product cycle emerges where,roughly, new goods are first produced in the low firing cost country willspecialize in 'secondary innovations', that is, improvements in existinggoods, while the low firing cost country will more specialize in 'primaryinnovation', that is, invention of new goods.

Mécanisme moléculaire de protection des HDLs contre le stress du réticulum endoplasmique dans la cellule beta pancréatique. [Molecular mechanisms of HDLs to protect against the endoplasmic reticulum stress in pancreatic beta cell.]

Introduction: Les particules de HDL (High Density Lipoproteins) ont des fonctions très diverses notamment anti-inflamatoires, anti-apoptotiques ou anti-oxydatives. Chez les patients diabétiques, les niveaux de HDLs sont bas, les prédisposants ainsi à un risque élévé à développer une maladie cardiovasculaire. Sachant que le s HDLs ont également un effet protecteur sur la cellule beta, le but de cette étude est dinvestigué les mécanismes moléculaires de cette protection contre le stress du réticulum, stress qui contriubue au développement du diabéte de type 2. Résultats: La thapsigargine et la tunicamycine induisent lapoptose en induisant un stress dans le réticulum endoplasmique (RE) par un mauvais repliement des protéines dans le RE, ainsi que l'activation de l'UPR (Unfolded Protein Respons) avec trois voies communes de signalisation intracellulaire (IRE1, PREK et ATF6). Ces voix veillent tout d'abord à augmenter la capacité de repliement des protéines et le cas échéant à lapoptose. Nos résultats montrent que les HDLs sont capable d'inhuber lapoptose induite par la thapsigargine et la tunicamycine dans les MIN6. Dans le cas du traitement avec la thapsigargine, plusieurs marqueurs des voix UPR sont bloqués en présence des HDLs, suggérant que l'effet anti-apoptotiques des HDLs s'exerce au niveau ou en amont du RE. Les HDLS par contre ne bloquent par la sortie de calcium du RE induite par la thapsigargine ce qui indique que les HDLs n'interfèrent pas avec l'action de cette drogue sur sa cible (SERCA). Dans le cas de la la tunicamycine, les HDLs ne bloquent pas, ou très légèrement, l'activation des voix de l'UPR. La protection induite par les HDLs contre la mort engendrée par la tunicamycine s'sexerce dont apparement en aval de l'UPR et reste à être déterminer. Conclusions: Nos données suggérent que les HDLs sont capable de protéger la cellule beta contre le stress du réticulum mais apparement de façon différente selon les modalités d'inductions de ce stress.

Weight status and gender-related differences in motor skills and in child care - based physical activity in young children.

Over the last decades, a decline in motor skills and in physical activity and an increase in obesity has been observed in children. However, there is a lack of data in young children. We tested if differences in motor skills and in physical activity according to weight or gender were already present in 2- to 4-year-old children. Fifty-eight child care centers in the French part of Switzerland were randomly selected for the Youp'là bouge study. Motor skills were assessed by an obstacle course including 5 motor skills, derived from the Zurich Neuromotor Assessment test. Physical activity was measured with accelerometers (GT1M, Actigraph, Florida, USA) using age-adapted cut-offs. Weight status was assessed using the International Obesity Task Force criteria (healthy weight vs overweight) for body mass index (BMI). Of the 529 children (49% girls, 3.4 ± 0.6 years, BMI 16.2 ± 1.2 kg/m2), 13% were overweight. There were no significant weight status-related differences in the single skills of the obstacle course, but there was a trend (p = 0.059) for a lower performance of overweight children in the overall motor skills score. No significant weight status-related differences in child care-based physical activity were observed. No gender-related differences were found in the overall motor skills score, but boys performed better than girls in 2 of the 5 motor skills (p ≤ 0.04). Total physical activity as well as time spent in moderate-vigorous and in vigorous activity during child care were 12-25% higher and sedentary activity 5% lower in boys compared to girls (all p < 0.01). At this early age, there were no significant weight status- or gender-related differences in global motor skills. However, in accordance to data in older children, child care-based physical activity was higher in boys compared to girls. These results are important to consider when establishing physical activity recommendations or targeting health promotion interventions in young children.

The impact of eliminating a child benefit on birth timing and infant health

We study the effects of the cancellation of a sizeable child benefit in Spainon birth timing and neonatal health. In May 2010, the government announced that a2,500-euro universal "baby bonus" would stop being paid to babies born startingJanuary 1, 2011. We use detailed micro data from birth certificates from 2000 to 2011,and find that more than 2,000 families were able to anticipate the date of birth of theirbabies from (early) January 2011 to (late) December 2010 (for a total of about 10,000births a week nationally). This shifting took place in part via an increase as well as ananticipation of pre-programmed c-sections, seemingly mostly in private clinics. We findthat this shifting of birthdates resulted in a significant increase in the number ofborderline low birth weight babies, as well as a peak in neonatal mortality. The resultssuggest that announcement effects are important, and that families and healthprofessionals may face effective trade-offs when deciding on the timing (and method) ofbirth.