Search for a Fermiophobic Higgs Boson Decaying into Diphotons in pp̅ Collisions at √s=1.96 TeV

A search for a narrow diphoton mass resonance is presented based on data from 3.0 fb^{-1} of integrated luminosity from p-bar p collisions at sqrt{s} = 1.96 TeV collected by the CDF experiment. No evidence of a resonance in the diphoton mass spectrum is observed, and upper limits are set on the cross section times branching fraction of the resonant state as a function of Higgs boson mass. The resulting limits exclude Higgs bosons with masses below 106 GeV at a 95% Bayesian credibility level (C.L.) for one fermiophobic benchmark model.

Search for Gluino-Mediated Bottom Squark Production in pp̅ Collisions at √s=1.96 TeV

We report on a search for the supersymmetric partner of the bottom quark produced from gluino decays in data from 2.5 fb-1 of integrated luminosity collected by the Collider Detector at Fermilab at sqrt(s)=1.96 TeV. Candidate events are selected requiring two or more jets and large missing transverse energy. At least two of the jets are required to be tagged as originating from a b quark to enhance the sensitivity. The results are in good agreement with the prediction of the standard model processes, giving no evidence for gluino decay to sbottom quarks. This result constrains the gluino-pair-production cross section to be less than 40fb at 95% credibility level for a gluino mass of 350 GeV.

Improved Search for a Higgs Boson Produced in Association with Z→l+l- in pp̅ Collisions at √s=1.96 TeV

We present a search for the standard model Higgs boson produced with a Z boson in 4.1 fb^-1 of data collected with the CDF II detector at the Tevatron. In events consistent with the decay of the Higgs boson to a bottom-quark pair and the Z boson to electrons or muons, we set 95% credibility level upper limits on the ZH production cross section times the H -> b bbar branching ratio. Improved analysis methods enhance signal sensitivity by 20% relative to previous searches beyond the gain due to the larger data sample. At a Higgs boson mass of 115 GeV/c^2 we set a limit of 5.9 times the standard model value.

Search for the Decays B(s)0→e+μ- and B(s)0→e+e- in CDF Run II

We report results from a search for the lepton flavor violating decays $B^0_{(s)}\to e^+\mu^-$, and the flavor-changing neutral-current decays $B^0_{(s)} \to e^+ e^-$. The analysis uses data corresponding to ${\rm 2 fb^{-1}}$ of integrated luminosity of $p \bar{p}$ collisions at $\sqrt{s}=1.96 {\rm TeV}$ collected with the upgraded Collider Detector (CDF II) at the Fermilab Tevatron. The observed number of $B^0_{(s)}$ candidates is consistent with background expectations. The resulting Bayesian upper limits on the branching ratios at 90% credibility level are $\mathcal{B}(B^0_s \to e^{+}\mu^{-}) e^{+}\mu^{-})e^{+}\mu^{-}) 47.8 {\rm TeV/c^2}$, and ${M_{LQ}}(B^0\to e^+ \mu^-) > 59.3 {\rm TeV/c^2}$, at 90% credibility level.

Very Low Birth Weight Infants as Young Adults : Focus on aspects of cognition, behavior and sleep

Major advances in the treatment of preterm infants have occurred during the last three decades. Survival rates have increased, and the first generations of preterm infants born at very low birth weight (VLBW; less than 1500 g) who profited from modern neonatal intensive care are now in young adulthood. The literature shows that VLBW children achieve on average lower scores on cognitive tests, even after exclusion of individuals with obvious neurosensory deficits. Evidence also exists for an increased risk in VLBW children for various neuropsychiatric disorders such as attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and related behavioral symptoms. Up till now, studies extending into adulthood are sparse, and it remains to be seen whether these problems persist into adulthood. The aim of this thesis was to study ADHD-related symptoms and cognitive and executive functioning in young adults born at VLBW. In addition, we aimed to study sleep disturbances, known to adversely affect both cognition and attention. We hypothesized that preterm birth at VLBW interferes with early brain development in a way that alters the neuropsychological phenotype; this may manifest itself as ADHD symptoms and impaired cognitive abilities in young adulthood. In this cohort study from a geographically defined region, we studied 166 VLBW adults and 172 term-born controls born from 1978 through 1985. At ages 18 to 27 years, the study participants took part in a clinic study during which their physical and psychological health was assessed in detail. Three years later, 213 of these individuals participated in a follow-up. The current study is part of a larger research project (The Helsinki Study of Very Low Birth Weight Adults), and the measurements of interest for this particular study include the following: 1) The Adult Problem Questionnaire (APQ), a self-rating scale of ADHD-related symptoms in adults; 2) A computerized cognitive test battery designed for population studies (CogState®) which measures core cognitive abilities such as reaction time, working memory, and visual learning; 3) Sleep assessment by actigraphy, the Basic Nordic Sleep Questionnaire, and the Morningness-Eveningness Questionnaire. Actigraphs are wrist-worn accelerometers that separate sleep from wakefulness by registering body movements. Contrary to expectations, VLBW adults as a group reported no more ADHD-related behavioral symptoms than did controls. Further subdivision of the VLBW group into SGA (small for gestational age) and AGA (appropriate for gestational age) subgroups, however, revealed more symptoms on ADHD subscales pertaining to executive dysfunction and emotional instability among those born SGA. Thus, it seems that intrauterine growth retardation (for which SGA served as a proxy) is a more essential predictor for self-perceived ADHD symptoms in adulthood than is VLBW birth as such. In line with observations from other cohorts, the VLBW adults reported less risk-taking behavior in terms of substance use (alcohol, smoking, and recreational drugs), a finding reassuring for the VLBW individuals and their families. On the cognitive test, VLBW adults free from neurosensory deficits had longer reaction times than did term-born peers on all tasks included in the test battery, and lower accuracy on the learning task, with no discernible effect of SGA status over and above the effect of VLBW. Altogether, on a group level, even high-functioning VLBW adults show subtle deficits in psychomotor processing speed, visual working memory, and learning abilities. The sleep studies provided no evidence for differences in sleep quality or duration between the two groups. The VLBW adults were, however, at more than two-fold higher risk for sleep-disordered breathing (in terms of chronic snoring). Given the link between sleep-disordered breathing and health sequelae, these results suggest that VLBW individuals may benefit from an increased awareness among clinicians of this potential problem area. An unexpected finding from the sleep studies was the suggestion of an advanced sleep phase: The VLBW adults went to bed earlier according to the actigraphy registrations and also reported earlier wake-up times on the questionnaire. In further study of this issue in conjunction with the follow-up three years later, the VLBW group reported higher levels of morningness propensity, further corroborating the preliminary findings of an advanced sleep phase. Although the clinical implications are not entirely clear, the issue may be worth further study, since circadian rhythms are closely related to health and well-being. In sum, we believe that increased understanding of long-term outcomes after VLBW, and identification of areas and subgroups that are particularly vulnerable, will allow earlier recognition of potential problems and ultimately lead to improved prevention strategies.

Music in the recovering brain

Listening to music involves a widely distributed bilateral network of brain regions that controls many auditory perceptual, cognitive, emotional, and motor functions. Exposure to music can also temporarily improve mood, reduce stress, and enhance cognitive performance as well as promote neural plasticity. However, very little is currently known about the relationship between music perception and auditory and cognitive processes or about the potential therapeutic effects of listening to music after neural damage. This thesis explores the interplay of auditory, cognitive, and emotional factors related to music processing after a middle cerebral artery (MCA) stroke. In the acute recovery phase, 60 MCA stroke patients were randomly assigned to a music listening group, an audio book listening group, or a control group. All patients underwent neuropsychological assessments, magnetoencephalography (MEG) measurements, and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scans repeatedly during a six-month post-stroke period. The results revealed that amusia, a deficit of music perception, is a common and persistent deficit after a stroke, especially if the stroke affects the frontal and temporal brain areas in the right hemisphere. Amusia is clearly associated with deficits in both auditory encoding, as indicated by the magnetic mismatch negativity (MMNm) response, and domain-general cognitive processes, such as attention, working memory, and executive functions. Furthermore, both music and audio book listening increased the MMNm, whereas only music listening improved the recovery of verbal memory and focused attention as well as prevented a depressed and confused mood during the first post-stroke months. These findings indicate a close link between musical, auditory, and cognitive processes in the brain. Importantly, they also encourage the use of listening to music as a rehabilitative leisure activity after a stroke and suggest that the auditory environment can induce long-term plastic changes in the recovering brain.

Grönlannin mannerjäätikön tulevaisuus: merenpinnan nousu maailmanlaajuisesti ja Itämerellä

Sea level rise is among the most worrying consequences of climate change, and the biggest uncertainty of sea level predictions lies in the future behaviour of the ice sheets of Greenland and Antarctica. In this work, a literature review is made concerning the future of the Greenland ice sheet and the effect of its melting on Baltic Sea level. The relation between sea level and ice sheets is also considered more generally from a theoretical and historical point of view. Lately, surprisingly rapid changes in the amount of ice discharging into the sea have been observed along the coastal areas of the ice sheets, and the mass deficit of Greenland and West Antarctic ice sheets which are considered vulnerable to warming has been increasing from the 1990s. The changes are probably related to atmospheric or oceanic temperature variations which affect the flow speed of ice either via meltwater penetrating to the bottom of the ice sheet or via changes in the flow resistance generated by the floating parts of an ice stream. These phenomena are assumed to increase the mass deficit of the ice sheets in the warming climate; however, there is no comprehensive theory to explain and model them. Thus, it is not yet possible to make reliable predictions of the ice sheet contribution to sea level rise. On the grounds of the historical evidence it appears that sea level can rise rather rapidly, 1 2 metres per century, even during warm climate periods. Sea level rise projections of similar magnitude have been made with so-called semiempirical methods that are based on modelling the link between sea level and global mean temperature. Such a rapid rise would require considerable acceleration of the ice sheet flow. Stronger rise appears rather unlikely, among other things because the mountainous coastline restricts ice discharge from Greenland. The upper limit of sea level rise from Greenland alone has been estimated at half a metre by the end of this century. Due to changes in the Earth s gravity field, the sea level rise caused by melting ice is not spatially uniform. Near the melting ice sheet the sea level rise is considerably smaller than the global average, whereas farther away it is slightly greater than the average. Because of this phenomenon, the effect of the Greenland ice sheet on Baltic Sea level will probably be rather small during this century, 15 cm at most. Melting of the Antarctic ice sheet is clearly more dangerous for the Baltic Sea, but also very uncertain. It is likely that the sea level predictions will become more accurate in the near future as the ice sheet models develop.

World parliament – fact or fiction? On the feasibility of world parliamentary models

Cosmopolitan ideals have been on the philosophical agenda for several millennia but the end of the Cold War started a new discussion on state sovereignty, global democracy, the role of international law and global institutions. The Westphalian state system in practice since the 17th century is transforming and the democracy deficit needs new solutions. An impetus has been the fact that in the present world, an international body representing global citizens does not exist. In this Master’s thesis, the possibility of establishing a world parliament is examined. In a case analysis, 17 models on world parliament from two journals, a volume of essays and two other publications are discussed. Based on general observations, the models are divided into four thematic groups. The models are analyzed with an emphasis on feasible and probable elements. Further, a new scenario with a time frame of thirty years is proposed based on the methodology of normative futures studies, taking special interest in causal relationships and actions leading to change. The scenario presents three gradual steps that each need to be realized before a sustainable world parliament is established. The theoretical framework is based on social constructivism, and changes in international and multi-level governance are examined with the concepts of globalization, democracy and sovereignty. A feasible, desirable and credible world parliament is constituted gradually by implying electoral, democratic and legal measures for members initially from exclusively democratic states, parliamentarians, non-governmental organizations and other groups. The parliament should be located outside the United Nations context, since a new body avoids the problem of inefficiency currently prevailing in the UN. The main objectives of the world parliament are to safeguard peace and international law and to offer legal advice in cases when international law has been violated. A feasible world parliament is advisory in the beginning but it is granted legislative powers in the future. The number of members in the world parliament could also be extended following the example of the EU enlargement process.

Search for High-Mass e+e- Resonances in pp̅ Collisions at √s=1.96 TeV

A search for high-mass resonances in the $e^+e^-$ final state is presented based on 2.5 fb$^{-1}$ of $\sqrt{s}=$1.96 TeV $p\bar{p}$ collision data from the CDF II detector at the Fermilab Tevatron. The largest excess over the standard model prediction is at an $e^+e^-$ invariant mass of 240 GeV/$c^2$. The probability of observing such an excess arising from fluctuations in the standard model anywhere in the mass range of 150--1,000 GeV/$c^2$ is 0.6% (equivalent to 2.5 $\sigma$). We exclude the standard model coupling $Z'$ and the Randall-Sundrum graviton for $k/\overline{M}_{Pl}=0.1$ with masses below 963 and 848 GeV/$c^2$ at the 95% credibility level, respectively.

Towards understanding the unusual Indian monsoon in 2009

The Indian summer monsoon season of 2009 commenced with a massive deficit in all-India rainfall of 48% of the average rainfall in June. The all-India rainfall in July was close to the normal but that in August was deficit by 27%. In this paper, we first focus on June 2009, elucidating the special features and attempting to identify the factors that could have led to the large deficit in rainfall. In June 2009, the phase of the two important modes, viz., El Nino and Southern Oscillation (ENSO) and the equatorial Indian Ocean Oscillation (EQUINOO) was unfavourable. Also, the eastern equatorial Indian Ocean (EEIO) was warmer than in other years and much warmer than the Bay. In almost all the years, the opposite is true, i.e., the Bay is warmer than EEIO in June. It appears that this SST gradient gave an edge to the tropical convergence zone over the eastern equatorial Indian Ocean, in competition with the organized convection over the Bay. Thus, convection was not sustained for more than three or four days over the Bay and no northward propagations occurred. We suggest that the reversal of the sea surface temperature (SST) gradient between the Bay of Bengal and EEIO, played a critical role in the rainfall deficit over the Bay and hence the Indian region. We also suggest that suppression of convection over EEIO in association with the El Nino led to a positive phase of EQUINOO in July and hence revival of the monsoon despite the El Nino. It appears that the transition to a negative phase of EQUINOO in August and the associated large deficit in monsoon rainfall can also be attributed to the El Nino.

Effect of undernutrition on the metabolism of phospholipids and gangliosides in developing rat brain

1. Phospholipid content of brains of 3- or 8-week-old undernourished rats was 7--9% less than that for the corresponding control animals and this deficit could not be made up by rehabilitation. Phosphatidyl ethanolamine and plasmalogen were the components most affected in brains of undernourished rats. 2. Incorporation of 32P into phospholipids by brain homogenates was 28% higher in 3-week-old undernourished rats. It is suggested that enhanced phospholipid metabolism in undernourished animals may be related to behavioural alterations noted previously (Sobotka, Cook & Brodie, 1974). 3. Ganglioside concentrations in 3- and 8-week-old undernourished animals were 14% and 11.5% less respectively than those of the control animals and this difference could be made up by rehabilitation. [14C]Glucosamine incorporation in vivo into brain gangliosides was not affected by undernutrition.

Corporate Brand Repositioning with CSR as the Differentiating Factor: A Study on Consumer Perceptions

Purpose – This research paper studies how the strategy of repositioning enables marketers to communicate CSR as their brand’s differentiating factor. It aims at understanding how consumer perceptions can be managed to generate brand value through corporate brand repositioning when CSR is the differentiating factor. The purpose of this paper is to answer the following research question: How can consumer perceptions be managed to generate brand value through corporate brand repositioning when CSR is the differentiating factor? The two research objectives were: 1. to build a model, which describes the different components of consumer perceptions involved in generation of brand value through repositioning when CSR is the differentiating factor, 2. to identify the most critical components in the context of the case company, IKEA for generation of brand value during the process of corporate brand repositioning Design/methodology/approach – This paper is based on the literature review covering the logic of brand value generation, repositioning strategy and consumer perceptions connected to CSR activities. A key concept of the positioning theory, the brand’s differentiating factor, was explored. Previous studies have concluded that desirability of the differentiating factor largely determines the level of brand value-creation for the target customers. The criterion of desirability is based on three dimensions: relevance, distinctiveness and believability. A model was built in terms of these desirability dimensions. This paper takes a case study approach where the predefined theoretical framework is tested using IKEA as the case company. When developing insights on the multifaceted nature of brand perceptions, personal interviews and individual probing are vital. They enable the interviewees to reflect on their feelings and perceptions with their own words. This is why the data collection was based on means-end type of questioning. Qualitative interviews were conducted with 12 consumers. Findings – The paper highlights five critical components that may determine whether IKEA will fail in its repositioning efforts. The majority of the critical components involved believability perceptions. Hence, according to the findings, establishing credibility and trustworthiness for the brand in the context of CSR seems primary. The most critical components identified of the believability aspect were: providing proof of responsible codes of conduct via conducting specific and concrete CSR actions, connecting the company’s products and the social cause, and building a linkage between the initial and new positioning while also weakening the old positioning. Originality/value – Marketers’ obligation is to prepare the company for future demands. Companies all over the globe have recognized the durable trend of responsibility and sustainability. Consumer´s worry about the environmental and social impact of modern lifestyles is growing. This is why Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) provides brands an important source of differentiation and strength in the future. The strategy of repositioning enables marketers to communicate CSR as their brand’s differentiating factor. This study aimed at understanding how consumer perceptions can be managed to generate brand value through corporate brand repositioning when CSR is the differentiating factor.

Nikotiinireseptoreiden kautta vaikuttavat lääkeaineet nikotiiniriippuvuuden ja neurologisten sairauksien hoidossa

Neuronaaliset nikotiinireseptorit liittyvät tupakkariippuvuuden lisäksi moniin neurologisiin sairauksiin, kuten Alzheimerin tautiin, skitsofreniaan, masennukseen ja tarkkaavaisuus- ja ylivilkkaushäiriöön. Nikotiinireseptorien stimulaation on tutkimuksissa havaittu parantavan kognitiota. Useat lääkeyritykset tutkivat nikotiinireseptoriagonisteja ja -antagonisteja eri neurologisten sairauksien hoidossa. Ongelmana nikotiinireseptori-agonisteja käytettäessä on reseptorissa tapahtuva desensitisaatio. Tällöin reseptori sulkeutuu, eikä aktivoidu vaikka agonistia olisi tarjolla tai sitoutuneena reseptoriin. Varsinkin alfa7-reseptori desensitoituu hyvin nopeasti agonistialtistuksen seurauksena. Reseptorien desensitoituminen voi kliinisessä käytössä aiheuttaa lääkeaineen tehon menetyksen. Perinteisen agonistin sitoutumiskohdan lisäksi nikotiinireseptorissa sijaitsee myös muita sitoutumiskohtia, joita kutsutaan allosteerisiksi sitoutumispaikoiksi. Tutkimuksissa on havaittu, että eräät allosteerisesti sitoutuvat aineet, kuten PNU-120596, voivat vahvistaa agonistin aikaansaamaa vastetta ja/tai estää reseptorin desensitoitumista. Näitä aineita kutsutaan positiivisiksi allosteerisiksi modulaattoreiksi ja niiden ajatellaan olevan vaihtoehto desensitoitumisen aiheuttamaan tehon menetyksen ongelmaan. Nikotiinireseptorien positiivisten allosteeristen modulaattorien tarkkaa vaikutusta ja sitoutumiskohtaa reseptoriin ei vielä tarkkaan tiedetä. Tutkimuksen aiheena oli karakterisoida positiivisten allosteeristen modulaattoreiden vaikutuksia alfa7-nikotiinireseptoriin. Tutkimuksessa tarkoituksena oli käyttää hyväksi laboratoriossa aiemmin tehtyä havaintoa, jonka mukaan alfa7-nikotiinireseptorin transmembraaniosan aminohappoon tehdyn mutaation L247T seurauksena positiiviset allosteeriset modulaattorit muuttuvat agonisteiksi. Haluttiin selvittää, kuinka agonistin sitoutumiskohtaan kohdennettua mutageneesiä käyttäen tehty mutaatio W149M tai W149F vaikuttavat PNU-120596:n kykyyn toimia agonistina alfa7L247T reseptoriin. Asetyylikoliini toimi konventionaalisen agonistin mallina tutkimuksessa. Tutkimuksen toinen tavoite oli tehdä mutaatio M253Lalfa7-reseptorin transmembraaniosaan. Mutaation on todettu estävän allosteeristen potentiaattoreiden kykyä voimistaa agonistin aikaansaamaa vastetta. Tarkoitus oli tutkia millaisia vaikutuksia M253L-mutaatiolla on allosteerisen potentiaattorin kykyyn toimia agonistina L247T-mutaation sisältävään reseptoriin. Mutatoidun reseptorin mRNA mikroinjektoitiin oosyyttiin ja elektrofysiologian avulla tutkittiin ilmennettyjen reseptorien toimintaa käyttäen kahden elektrodin jännitelukitus -menetelmää. Kaikki suunnitellut mutaatiot saatiin tehtyä onnistuneesti alfa7- ja alfa7L247T-reseptoreihin. Ortosteerisen sitoutumiskohdan mutaatio villin tyypin Į7-reseptorissa vaikutti hyvin voimakkaasti joko asetyylikoliinin sitoutumiseen reseptoriin tai reseptorin toimintaan, sillä asetyylikoliinilla ei reseptorista saatu mitattua vasteita. Myöskään PNU-120596 yksinään ei saanut aikaan vasteita alfa7W149M-reseptorissa. Kaksoismutatoidussa alfa7W149M/L247T-reseptorissa puolestaan havaittiin, että asetyylikoliinin annos-vaste -kuvaaja siirtyi huomattavasti enemmän oikealle kuin PNU-120596:n, kun verrattiin annos-vaste –kuvaajia alfa7L247T ja alfa7W149M/L247T–reseptoreiden välillä. Transmembraaniosan mutaatio M253L ei vaikuttanut PNU-120596:n kykyyn toimia agonistina alfa7L247T-reseptoriin, eikä sillä ollut vaikutusta asetyylikoliinin annosvaste-kuvaajiin. Tutkimus tukee aiempia havaintoja siitä, että positiivisten allosteeristen modulaattoreiden sitoutumiskohta nikotiinireseptorissa sijaitsisi transmembraaniosassa. M253L-mutaation osalta tulokset ovat hieman ristiriidassa aiempien tulosten kanssa. L247T-mutaatio vaikuttaa hyvin voimakkaasti nikotiinireseptorin toimintaan sekä sijaitsee aminohapon M253 läheisyydessä. On mahdollista, että se peittää M253L-mutaation vaikutuksen. Toisaalta voi olla, että M253 on aminohappo, joka vaikuttaa vain reseptorivasteiden voimistumiseen eikä allosteeristen potentiaattoreiden sitoutumiseen.

An Examination of How Entrepreneurs Can Improve Their Position in Relation to Investors

Previous research has been inconclusive regarding the impact of those who invest in entrepreneurs. Consider for a moment how potentially important they are to entrepreneurs. They for example decide who deserves funding, how much time they contribute to their portfolio firms, how they grant entrepreneurs access to their networks, and help entrepreneurs acquire additional funding. In sum, investors potentially have a great impact on the success of entrepreneurs. It is therefore important that we better understand the environment, relationships and context in which parties operate. This thesis contains five articles that explore investors’ and entrepreneurs’ relationships from various viewpoints, in theoretical frameworks, and use a variety of data and research methods. The first article is a literature review that summarises what we know of venture capital, business angel and corporate venture capital funding. The second article studies the entrepreneurs’ investor selection process, its consequences, and identifies key factors that influence the process. Earlier, the common approach has been to concentrate research on the investors’ selection policy, not the entrepreneurs’. The data and conclusions are based on multiple case studies. The article analyses how entrepreneurs can ensure that they get the best possible investor, when it is possible for an entrepreneur to select an investor, and what are the consequences of investor selection. The third article employs power constructs (dependency, power balance/imbalance, power sources) and analyses their applicability in the investor-entrepreneur relationship. Power constructs are extensively studied and utilised in the management and organisation literature. In entrepreneur investor relationships, power aspects are rarely analysed. However, having the ability to “get others to do things they would not otherwise do” is a very common factor in the investor-entrepreneur relationship. Therefore, employing and analysing the applicability of power constructs in this setting is well founded. The article is based on a single case study but suggests that power constructs could be applicable and consequently provide additional insights into the investor-entrepreneur relationship. The fourth article studies the role of advisors in the venture capital investment process and analyses implications for research and practice, particularly from the entrepreneurs’ perspective. The common entrepreneurial finance literature describes the entrepreneur-investor relationship as linear and bilateral. However, it was discovered that advisors may influence the relationship. In this article, the role of advisors, operating procedures and advisors’ impact on different parties is analysed. The fifth article concentrates on investors’ certification effect. The article measures and demonstrates that venture capital investment is likely to increase the credibility (in terms of media attention) of early stage firms, those that most often need additional credibility. Understanding investor certification can affect how entrepreneurs evaluate investment offers and how investors can make their offers appear more lucrative.

Indian Ocean Dipole: Processes and impacts

Equatorial Indian Ocean is warmer in the east, has a deeper thermocline and mixed layer, and supports a more convective atmosphere than in the west. During certain years, the eastern Indian Ocean becomes unusually cold, anomalous winds blow from east to west along the equator and southeastward off the coast of Sumatra, thermocline and mixed layer lift up and the atmospheric convection gets suppressed. At the same time, western Indian Ocean becomes warmer and enhances atmospheric convection. This coupled ocean-atmospheric phenomenon in which convection, winds, sea surface temperature (SST) and thermocline take part actively is known as the Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD). Propagation of baroclinic Kelvin and Rossby waves excited by anomalous winds, play an important role in the development of SST anomalies associated with the IOD. Since mean thermocline in the Indian Ocean is deep compared to the Pacific, it was believed for a long time that the Indian Ocean is passive and merely responds to the atmospheric forcing. Discovery of the IOD and studies that followed demonstrate that the Indian Ocean can sustain its own intrinsic coupled ocean-atmosphere processes. About 50% percent of the IOD events in the past 100 years have co-occurred with El Nino Southern Oscillation (ENSO) and the other half independently. Coupled models have been able to reproduce IOD events and process experiments by such models – switching ENSO on and off – support the hypothesis based on observations that IOD events develop either in the presence or absence of ENSO. There is a general consensus among different coupled models as well as analysis of data that IOD events co-occurring during the ENSO are forced by a zonal shift in the descending branch of Walker cell over to the eastern Indian Ocean. Processes that initiate the IOD in the absence of ENSO are not clear, although several studies suggest that anomalies of Hadley circulation are the most probable forcing function. Impact of the IOD is felt in the vicinity of Indian Ocean as well as in remote regions. During IOD events, biological productivity of the eastern Indian Ocean increases and this in turn leads to death of corals over a large area.Moreover, the IOD affects rainfall over the maritime continent, Indian subcontinent, Australia and eastern Africa. The maritime continent and Australia suffer from deficit rainfall whereas India and east Africa receive excess. Despite the successful hindcast of the 2006 IOD by a coupled model, forecasting IOD events and their implications to rainfall variability remains a major challenge as understanding reasons behind an increase in frequency of IOD events in recent decades.