Proposal for redesigning the financial system: lessons learned from the crisis

this paper analyzes the singularities inherent to the financial industry, in relation to other businesses, and its implications to financial crises throughout history. The efficient markets hypothesis is questioned, and its impact on the deregulation of the financial system is analyzed. Finally, the causes of the current crisis are investigated, and the general lines to be addressed for the redesign of a financial system to achieve an efficient and equitable capitalism are suggested.

A novel methodology to determine the mechanical properties of amorphous materials through instrumented nanoindentation

A novel methodology based on instrumented indentation was developed to characterize the mechanical properties of amorphous materials. The approach is based on the concept of a universal postulate that assumes the existence of a characteristic indentation pressure proportional to the hardness. This hypothesis was numerically validated. This method overcomes the limitation of the conventional indentation models (pile-up effects and pressure sensitivity materials).

Investigating verbal intelligence using the TF-IDF approach

In this paper we investigated differences in language use of speakers yielding different verbal intelligence when they describe the same event. The work is based on a corpus containing descriptions of a short film and verbal intelligence scores of the speakers. For analyzing the monologues and the film transcript, the number of reused words, lemmas, n-grams, cosine similarity and other features were calculated and compared to each other for different verbal intelligence groups. The results showed that the similarity of monologues of higher verbal intelligence speakers was greater than of lower and average verbal intelligence participants. A possible explanation of this phenomenon is that candidates yielding higher verbal intelligence have a better short-term memory. In this paper we also checked a hypothesis that differences in vocabulary of speakers yielding different verbal intelligence are sufficient enough for good classification results. For proving this hypothesis, the Nearest Neighbor classifier was trained using TF-IDF vocabulary measures. The maximum achieved accuracy was 92.86%.

Seismic Activity Rates in the Iberian Peninsula

Evaluating the seismic hazard requires establishing a distribution of the seismic activity rate, irrespective of the methodology used in the evaluation. In practice, how that activity rate is established tends to be the main difference between the various evaluation methods. The traditional procedure relies on a seismogenic zonation and the Gutenberg-Richter (GR) hypothesis. Competing zonations are often compared looking only at the geometry of the zones, but the resulting activity rate is affected by both geometry and the values assigned to the GR parameters. Contour plots can be used for conducting more meaningful comparisons, providing the GR parameters are suitably normalised. More recent approaches for establishing the seismic activity rate forego the use of zones and GR statistics and special attention is paid here to such procedures. The paper presents comparisons between the local activity rates that result for the complete Iberian Peninsula using kernel estimators as well as two seismogenic zonations. It is concluded that the smooth variation of the seismic activity rate produced by zoneless methods is more realistic than the stepwise changes associated with zoned approaches; moreover, the choice of zonation often has a stronger influence on the results than its fairly subjective origin would warrant. It is also observed that the activity rate derived from the kernel approach, related with the GR parameter “a”, is qualitatively consistent with the epicentres in the catalogue. Finally, when comparing alternative zonations it is not just their geometry but the distribution of activity rate that should be compared.

Novel fast random search clustering approach for mixing matrix identification in MIMO linear blind inverse problems with sparse inputs

In this paper we propose a novel fast random search clustering (RSC) algorithm for mixing matrix identification in multiple input multiple output (MIMO) linear blind inverse problems with sparse inputs. The proposed approach is based on the clustering of the observations around the directions given by the columns of the mixing matrix that occurs typically for sparse inputs. Exploiting this fact, the RSC algorithm proceeds by parameterizing the mixing matrix using hyperspherical coordinates, randomly selecting candidate basis vectors (i.e. clustering directions) from the observations, and accepting or rejecting them according to a binary hypothesis test based on the Neyman–Pearson criterion. The RSC algorithm is not tailored to any specific distribution for the sources, can deal with an arbitrary number of inputs and outputs (thus solving the difficult under-determined problem), and is applicable to both instantaneous and convolutive mixtures. Extensive simulations for synthetic and real data with different number of inputs and outputs, data size, sparsity factors of the inputs and signal to noise ratios confirm the good performance of the proposed approach under moderate/high signal to noise ratios. RESUMEN. Método de separación ciega de fuentes para señales dispersas basado en la identificación de la matriz de mezcla mediante técnicas de "clustering" aleatorio.

Diffusion of Eco-innovations: exploring the literature

In recent years, the importance of the management of eco-innovations has been growing, more in practice than in academia. However, although in the literature there are already some evidences focussed on management of eco-innovations, there is no comprehensive review on the knowledge base of diffusion of eco-innovations. This paper provides a current overview of the existing body of literature, identifying the most active scholars and relevant publications in this field, and deepening in the major disciplines and research streams. Results show that the theory of diffusion of innovations which provided the philosophical underpinnings of how innovations are diffused is not the main knowledge base to explain the diffusion of eco-innovations. Lead market hypothesis, sustainable transitions and the ecological modernization appear as the initial base of the cognitive platform that can contribute to the understanding of diffusion of eco-innovations.

Knowledge representation tool for cognitiveprocesses modeling

In the last decades, neuropsychological theories tend to consider cognitive functions as a result of the whole brainwork and not as individual local areas of its cortex. Studies based on neuroimaging techniques have increased in the last years, promoting an exponential growth of the body of knowledge about relations between cognitive functions and brain structures [1]. However, so fast evolution make complicated to integrate them in verifiable theories and, even more, translated in to cognitive rehabilitation. The aim of this research work is to develop a cognitive process-modeling tool. The purpose of this system is, in the first term, to represent multidimensional data, from structural and functional connectivity, neuroimaging, data from lesion studies and derived data from clinical intervention [2][3]. This will allow to identify consolidated knowledge, hypothesis, experimental designs, new data from ongoing studies and emerging results from clinical interventions. In the second term, we pursuit to use Artificial Intelligence to assist in decision making allowing to advance towards evidence based and personalized treatments in cognitive rehabilitation. This work presents the knowledge base design of the knowledge representation tool. It is compound of two different taxonomies (structure and function) and a set of tags linking both taxonomies at different levels of structural and functional organization. The remainder of the abstract is organized as follows: Section 2 presents the web application used for gathering necessary information for generating the knowledge base, Section 3 describes knowledge base structure and finally Section 4 expounds reached conclusions.

Regression analysis of top of descent location for idle-thrust descents

In this paper, multiple regression analysis is used to model the top of descent (TOD) location of user-preferred descent trajectories computed by the flight management system (FMS) on over 1000 commercial flights into Melbourne, Australia. In addition to recording TOD, the cruise altitude, final altitude, cruise Mach, descent speed, wind, and engine type were also identified for use as the independent variables in the regression analysis. Both first-order and second-order models are considered, where cross-validation, hypothesis testing, and additional analysis are used to compare models. This identifies the models that should give the smallest errors if used to predict TOD location for new data in the future. A model that is linear in TOD altitude, final altitude, descent speed, and wind gives an estimated standard deviation of 3.9 nmi for TOD location given the trajectory parame- ters, which means about 80% of predictions would have error less than 5 nmi in absolute value. This accuracy is better than demonstrated by other ground automation predictions using kinetic models. Furthermore, this approach would enable online learning of the model. Additional data or further knowledge of algorithms is necessary to conclude definitively that no second-order terms are appropriate. Possible applications of the linear model are described, including enabling arriving aircraft to fly optimized descents computed by the FMS even in congested airspace.

Lexical phrases in telecommunication blogs: a genre analysis

The study presented in this paper aims to provide a description of telecommunication blogs as a genre. Lexical phrases are analysed in order to reach conclusions regarding the nature of the language in these texts and the extent to which the results obtained are comparable with other written or conversational discourse types. Although the departing hypothesis is that the articles in blogs are basically transactional and their main objective is to transfer information, the conclusions point to interaction as a distinctive characteristic of this type of discourse and also to a more careful organization in the comments to the blogs entries than originally expected. RESUMEN. Este trabajo presenta una descripción de los blogs de Telecomunicación como género. A través del análisis de frases léxicas se llega a conclusiones sobre algunas de las características que definen la lengua que se usa en este tipo de textos y se comparan los resultados obtenidos con otros previos sobre el discurso escrito y el conversacional. Aunque la hipótesis de partida es que los artículos de los blogs son básicamente transaccionales, donde el principal objetivo es transmitir información, los resultados llevan a conclusiones sobre la importancia de la interacción en este tipo de discurso y también apuntan a una mayor organización de la esperable en las entradas de los comentarios al artículo principal del blog.

Does the natural "microcosm" created by Tuber aestivum affect soil microarthropods? A new hypothesis based on Collembola in truffle culture

microarthropods play an important role in fungi dispersion, but little is still known about the interaction between truffle and soil microarthropods. The aim of this study was to investigate the ability of the truffle Tuber aestivum to modify soil biogeochemistry (i.e. create a zone of scarce vegetation around the host plant, called a burn or brûlé) and to highlight the effects of the brûlé on the soil fauna community. We compared soil microarthropod communities found in the soil inside versus outside the T. aestivum brûlé with the chemistry of soil collected inside versus outside the brûlé. The study was carried out in three Mediterranean areas, two in Italy and one in Spain. The results confirmed the ability of T. aestivum to modify soil biogeochemistry in the brûlé: pH was higher and total organic carbon tended to be lower inside the brûlé compared to outside. Soil fauna communities showed some interesting differences. Some groups, such as Symphyla and Pauropoda, adapted well to the soil; some Collembolan families, and biodiversity and soil quality indices were generally higher outside the brûlé. Folsomia sp. showed higher abundance in the soil of the brûlé compared to outside. The results suggest that some Collembola groups may be attracted by the fungal metabolites produced by T. aestivum, while other Collembola and other microarthropods may find an unfavourable environment in the soil of the brûlé. The next steps will be to confirm this hypothesis and to extend the study to other keys groups such as nematodes and earthworms and to link fluctuations of soil communities with the biological phases of truffle growth.

Patrones y procesos espaciales en poblaciones y comunidades vegetales: nuevas herramientas e hipótesis

Generalmente los patrones espaciales de puntos en ecología, se definen en el espacio bi-dimensional, donde cada punto representado por el par ordenado (x,y), resume la ubicación espacial de una planta. La importancia de los patrones espaciales de plantas radica en que proceden como respuesta ante importantes procesos ecológicos asociados a la estructura de una población o comunidad. Tales procesos incluyen fenómenos como la dispersión de semillas, la competencia por recursos, la facilitación, respuesta de las plantas ante algún tipo de estrés, entre otros. En esta tesis se evalúan los factores y potenciales procesos subyacentes, que explican los patrones de distribución espacial de la biodiversidad vegetal en diferentes ecosistemas como bosque mediterráneo, bosque tropical y matorral seco tropical; haciendo uso de nuevas metodologías para comprobar hipótesis relacionadas a los procesos espaciales. En este trabajo se utilizaron dos niveles ecológicos para analizar los procesos espaciales, el nivel de población y el nivel de comunidad, con el fin de evaluar la importancia relativa de las interacciones intraespecíficas e interespecíficas. Me centré en el uso de funciones estadísticas que resumen los patrones de puntos para explorar y hacer inferencias a partir de datos espaciales, empezando con la construcción de un nuevo modelo nulo para inferir variantes del síndrome de dispersión de una planta parásita en España central. Se analizó la dependencia de los patrones espaciales tanto de los hospedantes afectados como de los no-afectados y se observó fuerte dependencia a pequeña y mediana distancia. Se utilizaron dos funciones (kernel) para simular la dispersión de la especie parásita y se identificó consistencia de estos modelos con otros síndromes de dispersión adicionalmente a la autodispersión. Un segundo tema consistió en desarrollar un método ANOVA de dos vías? para patrones de puntos replicados donde el interés se concentró en evaluar la interacción de dos factores. Este método se aplicó a un caso de estudio que consitió en analizar la influencia de la topografía y la altitud sobre el patrón espacial de un arbusto dominante en matorral seco al sur del Ecuador, cuyos datos provienen de patrones de puntos replicados basados en diseño. Partiendo de una metodología desarrollada para procesos uni-factoriales, se construyó el método para procesos bi-factoriales y así poder evaluar el efecto de interacción. Se observó que la topografía por sí sola así como la interacción con la altitud presentaron efecto significativo sobre la formación del patrón espacial. Un tercer tema fue identificar la relación entre el patrón espacial y el síndrome de dispersión de la comunidad vegetal en el bosque tropical de la Isla de Barro Colorado (BCI), Panamá. Muchos estudios se han desarrollado en este bosque tropical y algunos han analizado la relación síndrome-patrón espacial, sin embargo lo novedoso de nuestro estudio es que se evaluaron un conjunto amplio de modelos (114 modelos) basados en procesos que incorporan la limitación de la dispersión y la heterogeneidad ambiental, y evalúan el efecto único y el efecto conjunto, para posteriormente seleccionar el modelo de mejor ajuste para cada especie. Más de la mitad de las especies presentaron patrón espacial consistente con el efecto conjutno de la limitación de la dispersión y heterogeneidad ambiental y el porcentaje restante de especies reveló en forma equitativa el efecto único de la heterogeneidad ambiental y efecto único de limitación de la dispersión. Finalmente, con la misma información del bosque tropical de BCI, y para entender las relaciones que subyacen para mantener el equilibrio de la biodiversidad, se desarrolló un índice de dispersión funcional local a nivel de individuo, que permita relacionar el patrón espacial con cuatro rasgos funcionales clave de las especies. Pese a que muchos estudios realizados involucran esta comunidad con la teoría neutral, se encontró que el ensamble de la comunidad de BCI está afectado por limitaciones de similaridad y de hábitat a diferentes escalas. ABSTRACT Overall the spatial point patterns in ecology are defined in two-dimensional space, where each point denoted by the (x,y) ordered pair, summarizes the spatial location of a plant. The spatial point patterns are essential because they arise in response to important ecological processes, associated with the structure of a population or community. Such processes include phenomena as seed dispersal, competition for resources, facilitation, and plant response to some type of stress, among others. In this thesis, some factors and potential underlying processes were evaluated in order to explain the spatial distribution patterns of plant biodiversity. It was done in different ecosystems such as Mediterranean forest, tropical forest and dry scrubland. For this purpose new methodologies were used to test hypothesis related to spatial processes. Two ecological levels were used to analyze the spatial processes, at population and community levels, in order to assess the relative importance of intraspecific and interspecific interactions. I focused on the use of spatial statistical functions to summarize point patterns to explore and make inferences from spatial data, starting with the construction of a new null model to infer variations about the dispersal syndrome of a parasitic plant in central Spain. Spatial dependence between point patterns in a multivariate point process of affected and unaffected hosts were analyzed and strong dependence was observed at small and medium distance. Two kernel functions were used to simulate the dispersion of parasitic plant and consistency of these models with other syndromes was identified, in addition to ballistic dispersion. A second issue was to analyze altitude and topography effects on the spatial population structure of a dominant shrub in the dry ecosystem in southern Ecuador, whose data come from replicated point patterns design-based. Based on a methodology developed for uni-factorial process, a method for bi-factorial processes was built to assess the interaction effect. The topography alone and interacting with altitude showed significant effect on the spatial pattern of shrub. A third issue was to identify the relationship between the spatial pattern and dispersal syndromes of plant community in the tropical forest of Barro Colorado Island (BCI), Panamá. Several studies have been developed in this tropical forest and some focused on the spatial pattern-syndrome relationship; however the novelty of our study is that a large set of models (114 models) including dispersal limitation and environmental heterogeneity were evaluated, used to identify the only and joint effect to subsequently select the best fit model for each species. Slightly more than fifty percent of the species showed spatial pattern consistent with only the dispersal limitation, and the remaining percentage of species revealed the only effect of environmental heterogeneity and habitat-dispersal limitation joined effect, equitably. Finally, with the same information from the tropical forest of BCI, and to understand the relationships underlying for balance of biodiversity, an index of the local functional dispersion was developed at the individual level, to relate the spatial pattern with four key functional traits of species. Although many studies involve this community with neutral theory, the assembly of the community is affected by similarity and habitat limitations at different scales.

Diversidad funcional y diversidad filogenética en los bosques secos del sur del Ecuador

El concepto tradicional de reglas de ensamblaje refleja la idea de que las especies no co-ocurren al azar sino que están restringidos en su co-ocurrencia por la competencia interespecífica o por un filtrado ambiental. En está tesis abordé la importancia de los procesos que determinan el ensamble de la comunidad en la estructuración de los Bosques Secos en el Sur del Ecuador. Este estudio se realizó en la región biogeográfica Tumbesina, donde se encuentra la mayor concentración de bosques secos tropicales bien conservados del sur de Ecuador, y que constituyen una de las áreas de endemismo más importantes del mundo. El clima se caracteriza por una estación seca que va desde mayo a diciembre y una estación lluviosa de enero a abril, su temperatura anual varía entre 20°C y 26°C y una precipitación promedio anual entre 300 y 700 mm. Mi primer tema fue orientado a evaluar si la distribución de los rasgos funcionales a nivel comunitario es compatible con la existencia de un filtro ambiental (filtrado del hábitat) o con la existencia de un proceso de limitación de la semejanza funcional impuesta por la competencia inter-específica entre 58 especies de plantas leñosas repartidas en 109 parcelas (10x50m). Para ello, se analizó la distribución de los valores de cinco rasgos funcionales (altura máxima, densidad de la madera, área foliar específica, tamaño de la hoja y de masa de la semilla), resumida mediante varios estadísticos (rango, varianza, kurtosis y la desviación estándar de la distribución de distancias funcionales a la especies más próxima) y se comparó con la distribución esperada bajo un modelo nulo con ausencia de competencia. Los resultados obtenidos apoyan que tanto el filtrado ambiental como la limitación a la semejanza afectan el ensamble de las comunidades vegetales de los bosques secos Tumbesinos. Un segundo tema fue identificar si la diversidad funcional está condicionada por los gradientes ambientales, y en concreto si disminuye en los ambientes más estresantes a causa del filtrado ambiental, y si por el contrario aumenta en los ambientes más benignos donde la competencia se vuelve más importante, teniendo en cuenta las posibles modificaciones a este patrón general a causa de las interacciones de facilitación. Para abordar este estudio analizamos tanto las variaciones en la diversidad funcional (respecto a los de los cinco rasgos funcionales empleados en el primer capítulo de la tesis) como las variaciones de diversidad filogenética a lo largo de un gradiente de estrés climático en los bosques tumbesinos, y se contrastaron frente a las diversidades esperadas bajo un modelo de ensamblaje completamente aleatorio de la comunidad. Los análisis mostraron que tan sólo la diversidad de tamaños foliares siguió el patrón de variación esperado, disminuyendo a medida que aumentó el estrés abiótico mientras que ni el resto de rasgos funcionales ni la diversidad funcional multivariada ni la diversidad filogenética mostraron una variación significativa a lo largo del gradiente ambiental. Un tercer tema fue evaluar si los procesos que organizan la estructura funcional de la comunidad operan a diferentes escalas espaciales. Para ello cartografié todos los árboles y arbustos de más de 5 cm de diámetro en una parcela de 9 Ha de bosque seco y caractericé funcionalmente todas las especies. Dicha parcela fue dividida en subparcelas de diferente tamaño, obteniéndose subparcelas a seis escalas espaciales distintas. Los resultados muestran agregación de estrategias funcionales semejantes a escalas pequeñas, lo que sugiere la existencia bien de filtros ambientales actuando a escala fina o bien de procesos competitivos que igualan la estrategia óptima a dichas escalas. Finalmente con la misma información de la parcela permanente de 9 Ha. Nos propusimos evaluar el efecto y comportamiento de las especies respecto a la organización de la diversidad taxonómica, funcional y filogenética. Para ello utilicé tres funciones sumario espaciales: ISAR- para el nivel taxonómico, IFDAR para el nivel funcional y IPSVAR para el nivel filogenética y las contrastamos frente a modelos nulos que describen la distribución espacial de las especies individuales. Los resultados mostraron que en todas las escalas espaciales consideradas para ISAR, IFDAR y IPSVAR, la mayoría de las especies se comportaron como neutras, es decir, que están rodeados por la riqueza de diversidad semejante a la esperada. Sin embargo, algunas especies aparecieron como acumuladoras de diversidad funcional y filogenética, lo que sugiere su implicación en procesos competitivos de limitación de la semejanza. Una pequeña proporción de las especies apareció como repelente de la diversidad funcional y filogenética, lo que sugiere su implicación en un proceso de filtrado de hábitat. En este estudio pone de relieve cómo el análisis de las dimensiones alternativas de la biodiversidad, como la diversidad funcional y filogenética, puede ayudarnos a entender la co-ocurrencia de especies en diversos ensambles de comunidad. Todos los resultados de este estudio aportan nuevas evidencias de los procesos de ensamblaje de la comunidad de los Bosques Estacionalmente secos y como las variables ambientales y la competencia juegan un papel importante en la estructuración de la comunidad. ABSTRACT The traditional concept of the rules assembly for species communities reflects the idea that species do not co-occur at random but are restricted in their co-occurrence by interspecific competition or an environmental filter. In this thesis, I addressed the importance of the se processes in the assembly of plant communities in the dry forests of southern Ecuador. This study was conducted in the biogeographic region of Tumbesina has the largest concentration of well-conserved tropical dry forests of southern Ecuador, and is recognized as one of the most important areas of endemism in the world. The climate is characterized by a dry season from May to December and a rainy season from January to April. The annual temperature varies between 20 ° C and 26 ° C and an average annual rainfall between 300 and 700 mm. I first assessed whether the distribution of functional traits at the level of the community is compatible with the existence of an environmental filter (imposed by habitat) or the existence of a limitation on functional similarity imposed by interspecific competition. This analysis was conducted for 58 species of woody plants spread over 109 plots of 10 x 50 m. Specifically, I compared the distribution of values of five functional traits (maximum height, wood density, specific leaf area, leaf size and mass of the seed), via selected statistical properties (range, variance, kurtosis and analyzed the standard deviation of the distribution of the closest functional species) distances and compared with a expected distribution under a null model of no competition. The results support that both environmental filtering and a limitation on trait similarity affect the assembly of plant communities in dry forests Tumbesina. My second chapter evaluated whether variation in functional diversity is conditioned by environmental gradients. In particular, I tested whether it decreases in the most stressful environments because of environmental filters, or if, on the contrary, functional diversity is greater in more benign environments where competition becomes more important (notwithstanding possible changes to this general pattern due to facilitation). To address this theme I analyzed changes in both the functional diversity (maximum height, wood density, specific leaf area, leaf size and mass of the seed) and the phylogenetic diversity, along a gradient of climatic stress in Tumbes forests. The observed patterns of variation were contrasted against the diversity expected under a completely random null model of community assembly. Only the diversity of leaf sizes followed the hypothesis decreasing in as trait variation abiotic stress increased, while the other functional traits multivariate functional diversity and phylogenetic diversity no showed significant variation along the environmental gradient. The third theme assess whether the processes that organize the functional structure of the community operate at different spatial scales. To do this I mapped all the trees and shrubs of more than 5 cm in diameter within a plot of 9 hectares of dry forest and functionally classified each species. The plot was divided into subplots of different sizes, obtaining subplots of six different spatial scales. I found aggregation of similar functional strategies at small scales, which may indicate the existence of environmental filters or competitive processes that correspond to the optimal strategy for these fine scales. Finally, with the same information from the permanent plot of 9 ha, I evaluated the effect and behavior of individual species on the organization of the taxonomic, functional and phylogenetic diversity. The analysis comprised three spatial summary functions: ISAR- for taxonomic level analysis, IFDAR for functional level analysis, and IPSVAR for phylogenetic level analysis, in each case the pattern of diversity was contrasted against null models that randomly reallocate describe the spatial distribution of individual species and their traits. For all spatial scales considering ISAR, IFDAR and IPSVAR, most species behaved as neutral, i.e. they are surrounded by the diversity of other traits similar to that expected under a null model. However, some species appeared as accumulator of functional and phylogenetic diversity, suggesting that they may play a role in competitive processes that limiting similarity. A small proportion of the species appeared as repellent of functional and phylogenetic diversity, suggesting their involvement in a process of habitat filtering. These analysis highlights that the analysis of alternative dimensions of biodiversity, such as functional and phylogenetic diversity, can help us understand the co-occurrence of species in the assembly of biotic communities. All results of this study provide further evidence of the processes of assembly of the community of the seasonally dry forests as environmental variables and competition play an important role in structuring the community.

Horizontal gene transfer among genomes: The complexity hypothesis

Increasingly, studies of genes and genomes are indicating that considerable horizontal transfer has occurred between prokaryotes. Extensive horizontal transfer has occurred for operational genes (those involved in housekeeping), whereas informational genes (those involved in transcription, translation, and related processes) are seldomly horizontally transferred. Through phylogenetic analysis of six complete prokaryotic genomes and the identification of 312 sets of orthologous genes present in all six genomes, we tested two theories describing the temporal flow of horizontal transfer. We show that operational genes have been horizontally transferred continuously since the divergence of the prokaryotes, rather than having been exchanged in one, or a few, massive events that occurred early in the evolution of prokaryotes. In agreement with earlier studies, we found that differences in rates of evolution between operational and informational genes are minimal, suggesting that factors other than rate of evolution are responsible for the observed differences in horizontal transfer. We propose that a major factor in the more frequent horizontal transfer of operational genes is that informational genes are typically members of large, complex systems, whereas operational genes are not, thereby making horizontal transfer of informational gene products less probable (the complexity hypothesis).

Cyclin B2-null mice develop normally and are fertile whereas cyclin B1-null mice die in utero

Two B-type cyclins, B1 and B2, have been identified in mammals. Proliferating cells express both cyclins, which bind to and activate p34cdc2. To test whether the two B-type cyclins have distinct roles, we generated lines of transgenic mice, one lacking cyclin B1 and the other lacking cyclin B2. Cyclin B1 proved to be an essential gene; no homozygous B1-null pups were born. In contrast, nullizygous B2 mice developed normally and did not display any obvious abnormalities. Both male and female cyclin B2-null mice were fertile, which was unexpected in view of the high levels and distinct patterns of expression of cyclin B2 during spermatogenesis. We show that the expression of cyclin B1 overlaps the expression of cyclin B2 in the mature testis, but not vice versa. Cyclin B1 can be found both on intracellular membranes and free in the cytoplasm, in contrast to cyclin B2, which is membrane-associated. These observations suggest that cyclin B1 may compensate for the loss of cyclin B2 in the mutant mice, and implies that cyclin B1 is capable of targeting the p34cdc2 kinase to the essential substrates of cyclin B2.

Transfer of human serum IgG to nonobese diabetic Igμnull mice reveals a role for autoantibodies in the loss of secretory function of exocrine tissues in Sjögren’s syndrome

The NOD (nonobese diabetic) mouse has been studied as an animal model for autoimmune insulin-dependent diabetes and Sjögren’s syndrome. NOD.Igμnull mice, which lack functional B lymphocytes, develop progressive histopathologic lesions of the submandibular and lachrymal glands similar to NOD mice, but in the absence of autoimmune insulitis and diabetes. Despite the focal appearance of T cells in salivary and lachrymal tissues, NOD.Igμnull mice fail to lose secretory function as determined by stimulation of the muscarinic/cholinergic receptor by the agonist pilocarpine, suggesting a role for B cell autoantibodies in mediating exocrine dryness. Infusion of purified serum IgG or F(ab′)2 fragments from parental NOD mice or human primary Sjögren’s syndrome patients, but not serum IgG from healthy controls, alters stimulated saliva production, an observation consistent with antibody binding to neural receptors. Furthermore, human patient IgG fractions competitively inhibited the binding of the muscarinic receptor agonist, [3H]quinuclidinyl benzilate, to salivary gland membranes. This autoantibody activity is lost after preadsorption with intact salivary cells. These findings indicate that autoantibodies play an important part in the functional impairment of secretory processes seen in connection with the autoimmune exocrinopathy of Sjögren’s syndrome.