Comparing impacts of new cropping systems on biodiversity in traditional rural China

This study selected six geographically-similar villages with traditional and alternative cultivation methods (two groups of three, one traditional and two alternatives) in two counties of Henan Province, China—a representative area of the Huang-huai-hai Plain representing traditional rural China. Soil heavy metal concentrations, floral and faunal biodiversity, and socio-economic data were recorded. Heavy metal concentrations of surface soils from three sites in each village were analysed using Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry (ICP-MS, chromium, nickel, copper, cadmium, and lead) and Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer (AAS, zinc). The floral biodiversity of four land-use types was recorded following the Braun-Blanquet coverage-abundance method using 0.5×0.5m quadrats. The faunal biodiversity of two representative farmland plots was recorded using 0.3×0.3m quadrats at four 0.1m layers. The socio-economic data were recorded through face-to-face interviews of one hundred randomly selected households at each village. Results demonstrate different cultivation methods lead to different impact on above variables. Traditional cultivation led to lower heavy metal concentrations; both alternative managements were associated with massive agrochemical input causing heavy metal pollution in farmlands. Floral distribution was significantly affected by village factors. Diverse cultivation supported high floral biodiversity through multi-scale heterogeneous landscapes containing niches and habitats. Faunal distribution was also significantly affected by village factor nested within soil depth. Different faunal groups responded differently, with Acari being taxonomically diverse and Collembola high in densities. Increase in manual labour and crop number in villages using alternative cultivation may positively affect biodiversity. The results point to the conservation potential of diverse cultivation methods in traditional rural China and other regions under social and political reforms, where traditional agriculture is changing to unified, large-scale mechanized agriculture. This study serves as a baseline for conservation in small-holding agricultural areas of China, and points to the necessity of further studies at larger and longer scales.

The relationship between rural livelihoods and livestock keeping: the case of Sidama Zone, Southern Ethiopia

This study examines the relationship between rural livelihoods and livestock keeping in Sidama Zones, southern Ethiopia. The livelihood context, assets and strategies of households are the key features of rural livelihoods considered in the study; while households’ livestock ownership, dependence on livestock and livestock management are the main aspects of livestock keeping examined. The study used the sustainable livelihood approach as a framework for data collection and analysis. Describing the main features of rural livelihoods and livestock keeping, and the general pattern of relationship between them, this study mainly aims at identifying the main livelihood factors that determine livestock keeping in the study area. Descriptive statistics, pair wise correlations, mean comparisons and analysis of variance were used to describe rural livelihoods and livestock keeping as well as the relationship between them. Tobit regressions were used to examine the effect of the various livelihood factors on households’ livestock ownership and dependence; Poisson regressions are used to investigate the factors that influence the intensity of livestock management measured by the use of different technologies and inputs. The findings indicated that a number of livelihood factors - assets, livelihood strategies, livelihood shocks and institutional supports - significantly determine the different aspects of livestock keeping. These include: human assets such as age, education and family size; social assets such as membership to social groups; financial assets such as credit; natural assets such as land, and household physical assets; and livelihood strategies such as diversification into farm and nonfarm activities, and coping mechanisms. In addition the livelihood vulnerability context such as shocks and institutional support are among the main determinants of livestock keeping. The results, by and large, matched the findings of previous studies, and it is concluded that households livestock keeping depends on their livelihoods. Accordingly, it is recommended that policies aiming at livestock asset building and productivity improvement should take the livelihoods of rural households in to consideration. As such the study contribute to scholarly works in the area of rural livelihoods, in general, and livestock keeping, in particular. It also contributes to a better understanding of the problems of livestock keeping within the context of rural livelihoods in the country and to the formulation of appropriate policy for the development of the sector.

Vulnerability and adaptation to climate change in Guam – a case-study of the perceptions, attitudes, behaviors, and knowledge of a small rural community towards their watershed

This thesis argues that examining the attitudes, perceptions, behaviors, and knowledge of a community towards their specific watershed can reveal their social vulnerability to climate change. Understanding and incorporating these elements of the human dimension in coastal zone management will lead to efficient and effective strategies that safeguard the natural resources for the benefit of the community. By having healthy natural resources, ecological and community resilience to climate change will increase, thus decreasing vulnerability. In the Pacific Ocean, climate and SLR are strongly modulated by the El Niño Southern Oscillation. SLR is three times the global average in the Western Pacific Ocean (Merrifield and Maltrud 2011; Merrifield 2011). Changes in annual rainfall in the Western North Pacific sub‐region from 1950-2010 show that islands in the east are getting much less than in the past, while the islands in the west are getting slightly more rainfall (Keener et al. 2013). For Guam, a small island owned by the United States and located in the Western Pacific Ocean, these factors mean that SLR is higher than any other place in the world and will most likely see increased precipitation. Knowing this, the social vulnerability may be examined. Thus, a case-study of the community residing in the Manell and Geus watersheds was conducted on the island of Guam. Measuring their perceptions, attitudes, knowledge, and behaviors should bring to light their vulnerability to climate change. In order to accomplish this, a household survey was administered from July through August 2010. Approximately 350 surveys were analysed using SPSS. To supplement this quantitative data, informal interviews were conducted with the elders of the community to glean traditional ecological knowledge about perceived climate change. A GIS analysis was conducted to understand the physical geography of the Manell and Geus watersheds. This information about the human dimension is valuable to CZM managers. It may be incorporated into strategic watershed plans, to better administer the natural resources within the coastal zone. The research conducted in this thesis is the basis of a recent watershed management plan for the Guam Coastal Management Program (see King 2014).

De novo design and molecular assembly of a transmembrane diporphyrin-binding protein complex.

The de novo design of membrane proteins remains difficult despite recent advances in understanding the factors that drive membrane protein folding and association. We have designed a membrane protein PRIME (PoRphyrins In MEmbrane) that positions two non-natural iron diphenylporphyrins (Fe(III)DPP's) sufficiently close to provide a multicentered pathway for transmembrane electron transfer. Computational methods previously used for the design of multiporphyrin water-soluble helical proteins were extended to this membrane target. Four helices were arranged in a D(2)-symmetrical bundle to bind two Fe(II/III) diphenylporphyrins in a bis-His geometry further stabilized by second-shell hydrogen bonds. UV-vis absorbance, CD spectroscopy, analytical ultracentrifugation, redox potentiometry, and EPR demonstrate that PRIME binds the cofactor with high affinity and specificity in the expected geometry.

Telomere disruption results in non-random formation of de novo dicentric chromosomes involving acrocentric human chromosomes.

Genome rearrangement often produces chromosomes with two centromeres (dicentrics) that are inherently unstable because of bridge formation and breakage during cell division. However, mammalian dicentrics, and particularly those in humans, can be quite stable, usually because one centromere is functionally silenced. Molecular mechanisms of centromere inactivation are poorly understood since there are few systems to experimentally create dicentric human chromosomes. Here, we describe a human cell culture model that enriches for de novo dicentrics. We demonstrate that transient disruption of human telomere structure non-randomly produces dicentric fusions involving acrocentric chromosomes. The induced dicentrics vary in structure near fusion breakpoints and like naturally-occurring dicentrics, exhibit various inter-centromeric distances. Many functional dicentrics persist for months after formation. Even those with distantly spaced centromeres remain functionally dicentric for 20 cell generations. Other dicentrics within the population reflect centromere inactivation. In some cases, centromere inactivation occurs by an apparently epigenetic mechanism. In other dicentrics, the size of the alpha-satellite DNA array associated with CENP-A is reduced compared to the same array before dicentric formation. Extra-chromosomal fragments that contained CENP-A often appear in the same cells as dicentrics. Some of these fragments are derived from the same alpha-satellite DNA array as inactivated centromeres. Our results indicate that dicentric human chromosomes undergo alternative fates after formation. Many retain two active centromeres and are stable through multiple cell divisions. Others undergo centromere inactivation. This event occurs within a broad temporal window and can involve deletion of chromatin that marks the locus as a site for CENP-A maintenance/replenishment.

Accessibility, availability and affordability of anti-malarials in a rural district in Kenya after implementation of a national subsidy scheme.

BACKGROUND: Poor access to prompt and effective treatment for malaria contributes to high mortality and severe morbidity. In Kenya, it is estimated that only 12% of children receive anti-malarials for their fever within 24 hours. The first point of care for many fevers is a local medicine retailer, such as a pharmacy or chemist. The role of the medicine retailer as an important distribution point for malaria medicines has been recognized and several different strategies have been used to improve the services that these retailers provide. Despite these efforts, many mothers still purchase ineffective drugs because they are less expensive than effective artemisinin combination therapy (ACT). One strategy that is being piloted in several countries is an international subsidy targeted at anti-malarials supplied through the retail sector. The goal of this strategy is to make ACT as affordable as ineffective alternatives. The programme, called the Affordable Medicines Facility - malaria was rolled out in Kenya in August 2010. METHODS: In December 2010, the affordability and accessibility of malaria medicines in a rural district in Kenya were evaluated using a complete census of all public and private facilities, chemists, pharmacists, and other malaria medicine retailers within the Webuye Demographic Surveillance Area. Availability, types, and prices of anti-malarials were assessed. There are 13 public or mission facilities and 97 medicine retailers (registered and unregistered). RESULTS: The average distance from a home to the nearest public health facility is 2 km, but the average distance to the nearest medicine retailer is half that. Quinine is the most frequently stocked anti-malarial (61% of retailers). More medicine retailers stocked sulphadoxine-pyramethamine (SP; 57%) than ACT (44%). Eleven percent of retailers stocked AMFm subsidized artemether-lumefantrine (AL). No retailers had chloroquine in stock and only five were selling artemisinin monotherapy. The mean price of any brand of AL, the recommended first-line drug in Kenya, was $2.7 USD. Brands purchased under the AMFm programme cost 40% less than non-AMFm brands. Artemisinin monotherapies cost on average more than twice as much as AMFm-brand AL. SP cost only $0.5, a fraction of the price of ACT. CONCLUSIONS: AMFm-subsidized anti-malarials are considerably less expensive than unsubsidized AL, but the price difference between effective and ineffective therapies is still large.

Spatial distribution of bednet coverage under routine distribution through the public health sector in a rural district in Kenya.

Insecticide-treated nets (ITNs) are one of the most important and cost-effective tools for malaria control. Maximizing individual and community benefit from ITNs requires high population-based coverage. Several mechanisms are used to distribute ITNs, including health facility-based targeted distribution to high-risk groups; community-based mass distribution; social marketing with or without private sector subsidies; and integrating ITN delivery with other public health interventions. The objective of this analysis is to describe bednet coverage in a district in western Kenya where the primary mechanism for distribution is to pregnant women and infants who attend antenatal and immunization clinics. We use data from a population-based census to examine the extent of, and factors correlated with, ownership of bednets. We use both multivariable logistic regression and spatial techniques to explore the relationship between household bednet ownership and sociodemographic and geographic variables. We show that only 21% of households own any bednets, far lower than the national average, and that ownership is not significantly higher amongst pregnant women attending antenatal clinic. We also show that coverage is spatially heterogeneous with less than 2% of the population residing in zones with adequate coverage to experience indirect effects of ITN protection.

The protective role of religious coping in adolescents' responses to poverty and sexual decision-making in rural Kenya.

In this study, we explored how adolescents in rural Kenya apply religious coping in sexual decision-making in the context of high rates of poverty and Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV). Semi-structured interviews were conducted with 34 adolescents. One-third (13) reported religious coping related to economic stress, HIV, or sexual decision-making; the majority (29) reported religious coping with these or other stressors. Adolescents reported praying for God to partner with them to engage in positive behaviors, praying for strength to resist unwanted behaviors, and passive strategies characterized by waiting for God to provide resources or protection from HIV. Adolescents in Sub-Saharan Africa may benefit from HIV prevention interventions that integrate and build upon their use of religious coping.

Hybrid error correction and de novo assembly of single-molecule sequencing reads.

Single-molecule sequencing instruments can generate multikilobase sequences with the potential to greatly improve genome and transcriptome assembly. However, the error rates of single-molecule reads are high, which has limited their use thus far to resequencing bacteria. To address this limitation, we introduce a correction algorithm and assembly strategy that uses short, high-fidelity sequences to correct the error in single-molecule sequences. We demonstrate the utility of this approach on reads generated by a PacBio RS instrument from phage, prokaryotic and eukaryotic whole genomes, including the previously unsequenced genome of the parrot Melopsittacus undulatus, as well as for RNA-Seq reads of the corn (Zea mays) transcriptome. Our long-read correction achieves >99.9% base-call accuracy, leading to substantially better assemblies than current sequencing strategies: in the best example, the median contig size was quintupled relative to high-coverage, second-generation assemblies. Greater gains are predicted if read lengths continue to increase, including the prospect of single-contig bacterial chromosome assembly.

Patterns of de novo allo B cells and antibody formation in chronic cardiac allograft rejection after alemtuzumab treatment.

Even though the etiology of chronic rejection (CR) is multifactorial, donor specific antibody (DSA) is considered to have a causal effect on CR development. Currently the antibody-mediated mechanisms during CR are poorly understood due to lack of proper animal models and tools. In a clinical setting, we previously demonstrated that induction therapy by lymphocyte depletion, using alemtuzumab (anti-human CD52), is associated with an increased incidence of serum alloantibody, C4d deposition and antibody-mediated rejection in human patients. In this study, the effects of T cell depletion in the development of antibody-mediated rejection were examined using human CD52 transgenic (CD52Tg) mice treated with alemtuzumab. Fully mismatched cardiac allografts were transplanted into alemtuzumab treated CD52Tg mice and showed no acute rejection while untreated recipients acutely rejected their grafts. However, approximately half of long-term recipients showed increased degree of vasculopathy, fibrosis and perivascular C3d depositions at posttransplant day 100. The development of CR correlated with DSA and C3d deposition in the graft. Using novel tracking tools to monitor donor-specific B cells, alloreactive B cells were shown to increase in accordance with DSA detection. The current animal model could provide a means of testing strategies to understand mechanisms and developing therapeutic approaches to prevent chronic rejection.

Enhanced de novo alloantibody and antibody-mediated injury in rhesus macaques.

Chronic allograft rejection is a major impediment to long-term transplant success. Humoral immune responses to alloantigens are a growing clinical problem in transplantation, with mounting evidence associating alloantibodies with the development of chronic rejection. Nearly a third of transplant recipients develop de novo antibodies, for which no established therapies are effective at preventing or eliminating, highlighting the need for a nonhuman primate model of antibody-mediated rejection. In this report, we demonstrate that depletion using anti-CD3 immunotoxin (IT) combined with maintenance immunosuppression that included tacrolimus with or without alefacept reliably prolonged renal allograft survival in rhesus monkeys. In these animals, a preferential skewing toward CD4 repopulation and proliferation was observed, particularly with the addition of alefacept. Furthermore, alefacept-treated animals demonstrated increased alloantibody production (100%) and morphologic features of antibody-mediated injury. In vitro, alefacept was found to enhance CD4 effector memory T cell proliferation. In conclusion, alefacept administration after depletion and with tacrolimus promotes a CD4+memory T cell and alloantibody response, with morphologic changes reflecting antibody-mediated allograft injury. Early and consistent de novo alloantibody production with associated histological changes makes this nonhuman primate model an attractive candidate for evaluating targeted therapeutics.

Peer-Informed Learning on Increasing Contraceptive Knowledge Among Women in Rural Haiti

Contraceptive prevalence in Haiti remains low despite extensive foreign aid targeted at improving family planning. [1] Earlier studies have found that peer-informed learning have been successful in promoting sexual and reproductive health. [2-5] This pilot project was implemented as a three-month, community-based, educational intervention to assess the impact of peer education in increasing contraceptive knowledge among women in Fondwa, Haiti. Research investigators conducted contraceptive information trainings to pre-identified female leaders of existing women’s groups in Fondwa, who were recruited as peer educators (n=4). Later, these female leaders shared the knowledge from the training with the test participants in the women’s group (n=23) through an information session. Structured surveys measuring knowledge of contraceptives were conducted with all participants before the intervention began, at the end of the intervention, and four weeks after the intervention. The surveys measured general contraceptive knowledge, knowledge about eight selected types of modern contraceptives and contraceptive preferences and attitudes. Only test participants showed significant improvement in their general contraceptive knowledge score (p<0.001), but both test participants and peer educators showed significant improvement in overall knowledge scores for identifying the types and uses of modern contraceptive methods. Assessment for knowledge retention remained significantly higher four weeks after the intervention than prior to the intervention. Therefore, a one-time, three-hour peer-based educational intervention using existing social structures is effective, and might be valuable in a population with minimal access to education and little to no knowledge about contraceptives.

Cambios climáticos, percepciones humanas y desarrollo rural

Los cambios climáticos ponen en riesgo la producción agrícola, la seguridad alimentaria y los programas de desarrollo rural. Es posible que los programas de desarrollo rural tengan mayor éxito en el cumplimiento de sus objetivos cuando integren a sus propuestas los conocimientos de distintos actores. La presente investigación propone el estudio de percepciones sobre cambios climáticos por parte de diferentes actores sociales en Anchieta, SC, Brasil El caso de estudio fue elegido por su relevante experiencia en el desarrollo de estrategias de adaptación para las adversidades climáticas locales. Para llevar a cabo, el estudio fueron entrevistados 32 personas, (agricultores que utilizan una variedad local, agricultores que utilizan variedades industriales y tomadores de decisión) respecto de 4 aspectos centrales: A- Creencias sobre cambios climáticos, B- Influencia de los cambios climáticos en su vida, C- Posibilidad de intervención en los cambios climáticos y D- Medidas posibles, evaluación de estrategias de adaptación. El cambio climático fue identificado en las sequías, evidenciándose distintas acciones humanas como promotoras de la intensificación de estos cambios. Los resultados se relacionan con la construcción social de los problemas y las estructuras que condinan los discursos humanos

Las certificaciones responsables como mecanismo para la reducción de la pobreza en la población rural de Ecuador : estudio de caso múltiple

La pobreza rural continúa siendo un fenómeno de alcance mundial. En Ecuador las familias pobres son en gran mayoría indígenas que dependen de la agricultura como medio de subsistencia y enfrentan problemas serios de mínima o nula participación en el comercio, lo que perpetúa su condición de pobreza. En este contexto, las certificaciones Fair Trade y Rainforest Alliance se presentan como una forma de comercio que busca el bienestar social, la protección ambiental y la responsabilidad económica. El objetivo principal del trabajo es estudiar las certificaciones responsables como alternativas institucionales, organizacionales y tecnológicas para la reducción de la pobreza de los pequeños productores agropecuarios indígenas en el Ecuador. Para ello, se desarrolla un 'Estudio de Caso Múltiple' de FEDECADE y KALLARI, organizaciones que aglutinan a pequeños productores y trabajan con las certificaciones Comercio Justo y Rainforest Alliance. A nivel de pequeño productor se aplicaron técnicas de evaluación participativa como la Técnica diez semillas (TST) para levantar información cualitativa y cuantitativa. La contribución a la reducción de la pobreza se basa en 8 factores o características identificados en los pequeños productores certificados. Las mismas están relacionadas con: bajos ingresos, bajo nivel de conocimientos, deficiente salud, finca pequeña, mínima participación, conformismo y baja producción, las cuales han sido tomadas en cuenta para los estudios de caso. Con la implementación de las certificaciones mencionadas, se observa la aplicación de innovaciones tecnológicas que permitieron uniformizar los rendimientos y las condiciones de la chacra. La permanente interacción entre productores y la organización coordinadora permitió que los productores cuenten con mayor información sobre la demanda del mercado objetivo y menor incertidumbre, dada la estructura de contratos que se desarrolla. A pesar de estas innovaciones, a nivel institucional tuvo el menor grado de desarrollo siendo las certificaciones una iniciativa promovida por el sector privado. El pequeño productor bajo la certificación de Comercio Justo accede a un nuevo mercado que busca mejorar sus condiciones especialmente comerciales para aliviar su condición de pobreza. Con la adopción de la certificación los pequeños productores obtienen beneficios y ventajas como la mayor valoración el mayor precio del cacao y las nuevas técnicas de producción aprendidas. Sin embargo, su contribución para la reducción de la pobreza de los pequeños productores no es significativa. Con la certificación de Rainforest Alliance surge una nueva realidad comercial para el pequeño productor, caracterizada por una nueva estructura de coordinación entre actores de la cadena, sin la presencia de los intermediarios tradicionales y la producción de cacao con valor agregado, la incorporación de prácticas de sostenibilidad ambiental y el sentido de pertenencia a una organización indígena.

Desarrollo territorial rural en el norte de Santa Fe : el caso de la feria promocional de Avellaneda

El presente trabajo trata sobre la Feria Promocional de Avellaneda, que funciona desde el año 2002 en la ciudad homónima del norte santafesino y está integrada por pequeños productores agropecuarios. Con esta experiencia se ha contribuido al establecimiento de un canal de comercialización alternativo que es gestionado actualmente por la organización de feriantes, producto del proceso mencionado. El Programa Social Agropecuario (PSA) ha intervenido durante las etapas de creación y posterior funcionamiento de esta feria, sustentándose en dos enfoques: el Desarrollo Rural con Enfoque Territorial y en la Intervención Comunitaria como propuesta metodológica desde la perspectiva de la Educación Popular. Este trabajo tiene por objetivo analizar la experiencia de la Feria Promocional de Avellaneda para la comprensión del proceso de intervención y la generación de lecciones aprendidas. El abordaje metodológico se basa en los principios básicos de una sistematización de experiencias, entendida como un proceso de reflexión participativa efectuado en conjunto con las familias que integran la feria y con los distintos actores locales relacionados con ella: los técnicos del PSA, los funcionarios de la Municipalidad de Avellaneda y los clientes. Finalmente se sintetizan las lecciones aprendidas que se enuncian como un listado de buenas prácticas para ser tenidas en cuenta por otras iniciativas que se propongan desarrollar una actividad similar.