History of the Bay Scallop, Argopecten irradians, Fisheries and Habitats in eastern North America, Massachusetts through northeastern Mexico

This is a broad historical overview of the bay scallop, Argopecten irradians, fishery on the East and Gulf Coasts of North America (Fig. 1). For a little over a century, from about the mid 1870’s to the mid 1980’s, bay scallops supported large commercial fisheries mainly in the U.S. states of Massachusetts, New York, and North Carolina and on smaller scales in the states in between and in western Florida. In these states, the annual harvests and dollar value of bay scallops were far smaller than those of the other important commercial mollusks, the eastern oysters, Crassostrea virginica, and northern quahogs, Mercenaria mercenaria, but they were higher than those of softshell clams, Mya arenaria (Table 1). The fishery had considerable economic importance in the states’ coastal towns, because bay scallops are a high-value product and the fishery was active during the winter months when the economies in most towns were otherwise slow. The scallops also had cultural importance as a special food, an ornament owing to its pretty shell design, and an interesting biological component of

Nesting Success of Kemp’s Ridley Sea Turtles, Lepidochelys kempi, at Rancho Nuevo, Tamaulipas, Mexico, 1982–2004

The Kemp’s ridley sea turtle, Lepidochelys kempi, was on the edge of extinction owing to a combination of intense egg harvesting and incidental capture in commercial fishing trawls. Results from a cooperative conservation strategy initiated in 1978 between Mexico and the United States to protect and restore the Kemp’s ridley turtle at the main nesting beach at Rancho Nuevo, Tamaulipas, Mexico are assessed. This strategy appears to be working as there are signs that the species is starting to make a recovery. Recovery indicators include: 1) increased numbers of nesting turtles, 2) increased numbers of 100+ turtle nesting aggregations (arribadas), 3) an expanding nesting season now extending from March to August, and 4) significant nighttime nesting since 2003. The population low point at Rancho Nuevo was in 1985 (706 nests) and the population began to significantly increase in 1997 (1,514 nests), growing to over 4,000 nests in 2004. The size and numbers of arribadas have increased each year since 1983 but have yet to exceed the 1,000+ mark; most arribadas are still 200–800+ turtles.

Spatial and Temporal Distribution of Sea Turtles in the Western North Atlantic and the U.S. Gulf of Mexico from Marine Recreational Fishery Statistics Survey (MRFSS)

Systematic surveys, along with opportunistic sightings, have provided important information on sea turtle (Cheloniidae and Dermochelydae) distributions, knowledge which can help reduce the risk of harmful human interaction. In 1991 and 1992, the Marine Recreational Fishery Sta- tistics Survey (MRFSS) of the National Ma- rine Fisheries Service, NOAA, provided a unique opportunity to gain additional, synoptic information on the spatial and temporal distribution of sea turtles along the U.S. Atlantic and Gulf of Mexico coasts by asking recreational anglers if they had observed a sea turtle on their fishing trip. During the spring and summer months of those years, as water temperatures warmed, the MRFSS documented an increase in sea turtle sightings in inshore waters and in a northward direction along the U.S. Atlantic Coast and in a westward direction along the northern Gulf of Mexico. This pattern reversed in the late summer and fall months as water temperatures cooled, with sea turtles concentrating along Georgia and both coasts of Florida. Although the MRFSS did not provide species or size composition of sea turtles sighted, and effort varied depending upon location of fishing activity and time of year anglers were queried, it did provide an additional and useful means of ascertaining spatial and temporal distributions of sea turtles along these coasts.

The Fisheries for Mangrove Cockles,Anadaraspp., from Mexico to Peru, With Descriptions of Their Habitats and Biology, the Fishermen’s Lives, and the Effects of Shrimp Farming

This paper provides the first description of the mangrove cockle, Anadara spp., fisheries throughout their Latin American range along the Pacific coast from Mexico to Peru. Two species, A. tuberculosa and A. grandis, are found over the entire range, while A. similis occurs from El Salvador to Peru. Anadara tuberculosa is by far the most abundant, while A. grandis has declined in abundance during recent decades. Anadara tuberculosa and A. similis occur in level mud sediments in mangrove swamps, comprised mostly of Rhizophora mangle, which line the main-lands and islands of lagoons, whereas A. grandis inhabits intertidal mud flats along the edges of the same mangrove swamps. All harvested cockles are sexually mature. Gametogenesis of the three species occurs year round, and juvenile cockles grow rap-idly. Cockle densities at sizes at least 16–42 mm long ranged from 7 to 24/m2 in Mexico. Macrofaunal associates of cockles include crustaceans, gastropods, and finfishes. The mangrove swamps are in nearly pristine condition in every country except Honduras, Ecuador, and Peru, where shrimp farms constructed in the 1980’s and 1990’s have destroyed some mangrove zones. In addition, Hurricane Mitch destroyed some Honduran mangrove swamps in 1998. About 15,000 fishermen, including men, women, and children, harvest the cockles. Ecuador has the largest tabulated number of fishermen, 5,055, while Peru has the fewest, 75. Colombia has a large number, perhaps exceeding that in Ecuador, but a detailed census of them has never been made. The fishermen are poor and live a meager existence; they do not earn sufficient money to purchase adequate food to allow their full health and growth potential. They travel almost daily from their villages to the harvesting areas in wooden canoes and fiberglass boats at low tide when they can walk into the mangrove swamps to harvest cockles for about 4 h. Harvest rates, which vary among countries owing to differences in cockle abundances, range from about 50 cockles/fisherman/day in El Salvador and Honduras to 500–1,000/ fisherman/day in Mexico. The fishermen return to their villages and sell the cockles to dealers, who sell them mainly whole to market outlets within their countries, but there is some exporting to adjacent countries. An important food in most countries, the cockles are eaten in seviche, raw on the half-shell, and cooked with rice. The cockles are under heavy harvesting pressure, except in Mexico, but stocks are not yet being depleted because they are harvested at sizes which have already spawned. Also some spawning stocks lie within dense mangrove stands which the fishermen cannot reach. Consumers fortunately desire the largest cockles, spurning the smallest. Cockles are important to the people, and efforts to reduce the harvests to prevent overfishing would lead to severe economic suffering in the fishing communities. Pro-grams to conserve and improve cockle habitats may be the most judicious actions to take. Preserving the mangrove swamps intact, increasing their sizes where possible, and controlling cockle predators would lead to an increase in cockle abundance and harvests. Fishes that prey on juvenile cockles might be seined along the edges of swamps before the tide rises and they swim into the swamps to feed. Transplanting mangrove seedlings to suitable areas might increase the size of those habitats. The numbers of fishermen may increase in the future, because most adults now have several children. If new fishermen are tempted to harvest small, immature cockles and stocks are not increased, minimum size rules for harvestable cockles could be implemented and enforced to ensure adequate spawning.

The Demand for Eastern Oysters, Crassostrea virginica, from the Gulf of Mexico in the Presence of Vibrio vulnificus

California, in response to health concerns, initiated a program on 1 March 1991 which required anyone selling eastern oysters, Crassostrea virginica, from the Gulf of Mexico area to notify potential consumers that there was a risk in consuming them raw. This mandatory warning, followed shortly thereafter by a similar warning in other states, including Louisiana and Florida, received extensive press cover-age throughout the country and particularly in the Gulf area. This paper examines the extent to which the demand for Gulf-area oysters has been reduced as a result of mandatory warning labels and negative publicity. In general, the results suggest that since 1991 the “summer” dockside price has been reduced by about 50% as a result of warning labels and associated negative publicity, while the “winter” dockside price has been reduced by about 30%.

An Index of Abundance for Coastal Species of Juvenile Sharks from the Northeast Gulf of Mexico

A fishery-independent assessment of juvenile coastal shark populations in U.S. waters of the northeast Gulf of Mexico was conducted using two methods: gillnets and longlines. Surveys were conducted monthly during April–October in two fixed sampling areas from 1996 to 1998. The Atlantic sharpnose shark, Rhizoprionodon terraenovae, and the blacktip shark, Carcharhinus limbatus, were the most common species captured with either longlines or gillnets. An additional 14 shark species were captured, and juvenile indices of abundance were developed for 8 species with gillnets and 6 species of sharks with longlines. Trends in catch-per-unit-effort were found to vary depending on species. Length-frequency information revealed that the majority of sharks captured were juveniles. Given the direct relationship between stock and recruitment for sharks, continued monitoring of juvenile abundance will aid in determining the strength of the parental stock size and for predicting future population strength.

Assessment of the Distribution and Abundance of Coastal Sharks in the U.S. Gulf of Mexico and Eastern Seaboard, 1995 and 1996

During 1995 and 1996, the National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS), conducted pilot studies to develop survey methodology and a sampling strategy for assessment of coastal shark populations in the Gulf of Mexico and western North Atlantic. Longline gear similar to that used in the commercial shark fishery was deployed at randomly selected stations within three depth strata per 60 nautical mile gridf rom Brownsville, Tex. to Cape Ann, Mass. The survey methodology and gear design used in these surveys proved effective for capturing many of the small and large coastal sharks regulated under the auspices of the 1993 Fisheries Management Plan (FMP) for Sharks oft he Atlantic Ocean. Shark catch rates, species composition, and relative abundance documented in these pilot surveys were similar to those reported from observer programs monitoring commercial activities. During 78 survey days, 269 bottom longline sets were completed with 879 sharks captured.

Untrawlable Bottom in Shrimp Statistical Zones of the Northwest Gulf of Mexico

The Gulf of Mexico Fisheries Management Council tasked the National Marine Fisheries Service with determining the extent, if any, of loss oft rawlable bottom in the Gulf of Mexico based upon fishing industry concerns. There are approximately 31 million hectares in the 21 shrimp statistical zones in the Gulf, approximately 23 million hectares of waters that are <35 fathoms (where most shrimp trawling effort occurs), and approximately 11 million hectares in zones 10-21, <35f athoms, which were examined. There are 31,338 known hangs, snags, artificial reefs, hazards to navigation, oil rigs, and similar obstructions which cause trawling to be unfeasible in these zones. There are several refuge (i.e. untrawlable) areas associated with the Alabama Artificial Reefs. Conservatively assuming 1 hectare for each known obstruction, coupled with the known area of each refuge, the estimate of total untrawlable bottom in zones 10-21 less than 35 fathoms in the Gulf is 185,953 hectares, or roughly 1.7% of this total trawlable area. Sensitivity analysis demonstrated the robustness of this assumption, with a range of 0.3-4.3% possible. In specific shrimp zones, untrawlable area is much less than 1% except in zones 10 (26%) and 11(2.5%), both of which possess a refuge. Other than the implementation periods of these refugia, no temporal trends were detectable with respect to the amount of untrawlable bottom.

The Oyster Industry of Eastern Mexico

Mexico has an oyster industry of substantial size, ranking about sixth in the world. In 1993, among the top ten oyster producers, Korea, Japan, the United States, China, and France ranked ahead of Mexico, while the Philippines, Australia, Canada, and New Zealand trailed it (Fig. 1). On its east coast, the species landed is the eastern oyster, Crassostrea virginica, while on its west coast C. corteziensis, C. iridescens, and the Pacific oyster, C. gigas, are landed. During the last 10-15 years, annual production often was at least 50,000 t of shelled oysters, or nearly 1.5 million bushels (Anonymous, 1995), with the great preponderance (90%) coming from a series of lagoons connecting with the Gulf of Mexico along the east coast (Fig. 2) and the remainder produced on the west coast.

Estimation of Standardized Effort in the Heterogeneous Gulf of Mexico Shrimp Fleet

In this paper we estimate nominal and standardized shrimping effort in the Gulf of Mexico for the years 1965 through 1993. We accomplish this by first developing a standardization method (model) and then an expansion method (model). The expansion model estimates nominal days fished for noninterview landings data. The standardization model converts nominal days fished to standard days fished. We then characterize the historical trends of the penaeid shrimp fishery byvessel configuration, relative fishing power, and nominal and standardized effort. Wherever possible, we provide comparison with previous estimates by the National Marine Fisheries Service, NOAA.

Simulated and Actual Effects of the Brown Shrimp, Penaeus aztecus, Closure in Mexico

Simulations based on a yield-per-recruit model were performed to analyze the impact ofg rowth overfishing on brown shrimp, Penaeus aztecus, and to assess the effects of a closed season inshore and offshore of the Mexican States of Tamaulipas and Veracruz. Closure of both the inshore and offshore fisheries could enhance cohort yield by more than 300%. Cohon yield enhancement would be only about 60-80% if only the offshore season were closed. The closed season of 1993 gave better results as it covered a larger part of the brown shrimp peak recruitment period. Catch per unit of effort (CPUE) after closure in 1993, compared with 1994, was 2.4 times higher than the mean CPUE of the month. Total annual offshore yield increased 72% in 1993 (3,800 metric tons (t)) and 10% in 1994 (506 t) with respect to the mean annual offshore catch during the 10-year period prior to the 1993 closure. Simulation results could help identify alternatives that permit the coexistence of the inshore and offshore fisheries while maintaining high profitability of the brown shrimp fishery.

Occurrence and Behavior of Juvenile Red Snapper, Lutjanus campechanus, on Commercial Shrimp Fishing Grounds in the Northeastern Gulf of Mexico

Red snapper, Lutjanus campechanus, is subject to significant overfishing in U.S. Gulf of Mexico waters, and regulations are being implemented to reduce fishing mortality and restore them to a 20% spawning potential ratio by the year 2009. One source of mortality that must be reduced to achieve this goal is the incidental capture ofjuvenile red snappers in shrimp, Penaeus spp., trawls. NOAA's National Marine Fisheries Service is conducting research to develop shrimp trawl modifications to reduce the snapper bycatch. An important part of this research is the study of juvenile red snapper behavior on commercial shrimp grounds and in relation to trawling gear. An area of high juvenile red snapper abundance was identified off the coast of Mississippi. Most snappers were observed around structures or objects on the bottom which they appeared to use for refuge or orientation. Those ranging over barren bottom had no apparent point of orientation. When encountered by shrimp trawls, most juvenile snappers rose above the trawl footrope and fell back into the trawl. These observations have directed research toward modifying shrimp trawls to release juvenile red snappers after entry, rather than preventing them from entering a shrimp trawl.

Charter and Party Boat Operators in the U.S. Gulf of Mexico: A Social Structure Perspective

To better address the charter and party boat fishery needs in the U.S. Gulf of Mexico, fishery managers must understand the linkages between the industry and other groups and organizations that affect its success. Gulf state charter and party boat operators were interviewed to ascertain the extent of their social network linkages, membership in community organizations, business community relationships, and linkages to information sources. Approximately one-third to one-half of the charter and party boat operators did not belong to local community organizations that could assist their business through tourism promotion or natural resource protection. Despite their limited integration in the community, the vast majority of operators gave and received referrals from other businesses. Of four major information sources, the National Weather Service and the County Marine Extension agents were rated highest and lowest, respectively, in mean importance to charter and party boat operators. Results suggest that business success can be enhanced by strengthening network ties between operators and local businesses, chambers of commerce, and tourism organizations. For this to occur, individual operators and charter/party boat organizations need to become more effective in representing industry interests. Informational linkages between industry and govemment agencies also need improvement.

A Social and Economic Characterization of the U.S. Gulf of Mexico Recreational Shark Fishery

A mail survey of tournament shark anglers and party boat shark anglers was completed to examine their fishing activity, attitudes, trip expenditures, and consumer surplus. A sample of 700 shark anglers was selected from tournaments in the Gulf of Mexico during 1990, and a sample of party boat shark anglers was drawn from Port Aransas, Tex., party boat anglers during the summer of 1991. A response rate of 58% (excluding nondeliverables) was obtained from tournament anglers. The sample of party boat shark anglers was too small to provide useful results. Tournament shark anglers reported fishing an average of 58 days per year and targeted sharks and other large marine species. Tournaments occupy a small portion of their fishing effort. If this group of anglers were not able to fish for sharks, one-third indicated no other species would be an acceptable substitute, while others were willing to substitute other large marine species. Shark trip expenditures averaged $197 per trip with a consumer surplus of $111 per trip. Based on MRFSS estimates of the number of shark fishing trips, we estimate a total of $43,355,000 was spent by shark anglers in the Gulf of Mexico with a consumer surplus of $23,865,000 for a total gross value of the shark fishery of $66,220,000. MRFSS estimates of the number of sharks landed indicate an equivalent use value of $183 per shark.

Travel Characteristics of Marine Anglers Using Oil and Gas Platforms in the Central Gulf of Mexico

This study was designed to evaluate the travel characteristics of avid marine anglers off Louisiana in the Central Gulf of Mexico. It focuses on the complex marine travel patterns involving the extensive assemblage of oil and gas structures. In an intercept approach, marine recreationalf isherman were asked to identify near and offshore travel patterns on the day of the interview. Information was also solicited regarding how respondents selected and located fishing destinations as well as what method of fishing was undertaken that day. Petroleum platforms were a principal fishing destination, and platform anglers traveled an average distance of 75.5 km (40.7 n.mi.) to and from offshore fishing locations. In fishing an average of 6.5 platforms per trip, these anglers traveled about 21.3 km (11.5 n.mi.) between the first and last platform visited. Mean total distances for platform anglers were 96 km (51.8 n.mi). Travel distances for bay, nearshore, and bluewater anglers were also obtained.