Die Rolle des IL-2-Signalweges in einem murinen Adenokarzinom-Modell

Die Ursachen für die Entstehung von Lungentumoren sind vielseitig. Aus geschädigtem Drüsengewebe der Lunge kann sich die Tumorart des Adenokarzinoms entwickeln, welches zu den malignen Krebserkrankungen gehört und somit nach Etablierung eines Primärtumors metastasieren kann. Es wurde vielfach gezeigt, daß das Immunsystem bei der Bekämpfung eines mutierten Gewebes im fortschreitenden Verlauf des Tumorwachstums an Effektivität verliert. Die dahinter stehenden Mechanismen sind noch nicht ganz verstanden. Eine mögliche Ursache könnte eine fehlerhafte Regulation der Immunabwehr sein. Das Zytokin, welches bei dieser Regulation eine wichtige Rolle spielt, ist das Interleukin-2 (IL-2). Dieses aktiviert immunkompetente Zellen und gewährleistet deren Fortbestand während der Immunreaktion. In der vorliegenden Arbeit ist in einem murinen Modell von Bronchioadenokarzinom die Regulation von CD4+ T-Zellen durch IL-2 untersucht worden, beziehungsweise inwieweit eine Einflußnahme auf diese Regulation zur Verbesserung der Tumorabwehr beitragen kann. Die alpha-Kette des IL-2 Rezeptorkomplexes (CD25) ist neben dem Transkriptionsfaktor Foxp3 ein gängiger Marker für die Population der so genannten regulatorischen T-Zellen. Regulatorische T-Zellen treten im Tumorgewebe in erhöhtem Maße auf und inhibieren die gegen den Tumor gerichtete Effektorfunktion anderer Immunzellen. Durch intranasale Applikation eines anti-CD25 Antikörpers sollte, im speziellen bei den regulatorischen T-Zellen, das CD25 Molekül blockiert werden, um auf diese Weise die hochaffine Signalgebung zu unterbinden und die regulatorischen T-Zellen intratumoral zu depletieren. Es konnte gezeigt werden, daß die Blockade des IL-2 Rezeptors nicht zur Reduktion des Tumorwachstums beitrug. Trotz Applikation des Antikörpers waren die regulatorischen T-Zellen signifikant erhöht. Lediglich die Produktion des Zytokins Tumornekrosisfaktor-alpha (TNF-alpha) wurde durch die Zugabe des Antikörpers gesteigert, was aber keine Verbesserung der Tumorabwehr bewirkte. Als Alternative zur Blockade des IL-2 Rezeptors wurden verschiedene Dosen von rekombinantem IL-2 ebenfalls intranasal appliziert, um die T-Zell Populationen zusätzlich zu stimulieren. In diesem Fall war bei hohen Dosierungen eine Regression des Tumors zu erreichen. Die Regression ist auf eine erhöhte, durch das IL-2 aktivierte Produktion des Zytokins Interferon-gamma (IFN-gamma) zurückzuführen. Jedoch wurde sowohl bei der Blockade des IL-2 Rezeptors, als auch bei der Stimulation durch IL-2 ersichtlich, daß im Zusammenhang mit Adenokarzinom dem Zytokin TNF-alpha eine besondere Position zugedacht werden muß. Es ist bekannt, daß TNF-alpha in verschiedenen experimentellen Tumor-Modellen unterschiedliche Funktionen besitzt. Die Deletion des TNFs, hier dargestellt mittels TNF-knockout Mäusen, hatte eine kurative Wirkung. Die TNF-knockout Mäuse wiesen fast kein Tumorwachstum auf, die CD4+ T-Zellen aus den knockout Mäusen zeigten eine im Vergleich zum Wildtyp mehrfach höhere Produktion von IFN-gamma, bei gleichzeitiger Reduktion der regulatorischen T-Zellen. Es kann vermutet werden, daß TNF-alpha in dem verwendeten Adenokarzinom-Modell eine tumorunterstützende Wirkung hat. Dahingehend wäre die Neutralisierung der TNF-Signalgebung bei zusätzlicher Stimulation mit IL-2 als wirksamer Therapieansatz in Betracht zu ziehen.

Carcinoma polmonare non a piccole cellule T1aN0M0: Ruolo prognostico della Microvessel Density

Obiettivi. Valutare l’angiogenesi tumorale mediante la Microvessel density (MVD) come fattore predittivo di mortalità per tumore polmonare non a piccole cellule (NSCLC) pT1aN0M0 trattato chirurgicamente. Metodi. I dati demografici, clinici e istopatologici sono stati registrati per 82 pazienti (60 maschi, 22 femmine) sottoposti a resezione chirurgica in due diverse Chirurgie Toraciche tra gennaio 2002 e dicembre 2007 per tumori polmonari non a piccole cellule pT1AN0M0. La MVD è stata valutata mediante il conteggio visivo dei microvasi positivi alla colorazione immunoistochimica con anticorpo monoclonale anti-CD31 e definita come il numero medio di microvasi per 1 mm2 di campo ottico. Risultati. Sono state eseguite 59 lobectomie (72%) e 23 resezioni sublobari (28%). Reperti istopatologici: 43 adenocarcinomi (52%) e 39 neoplasie non- adenocarcinoma (48%) pT1aN0M0; MVD media: 161 (CD31/mm2); mediana: 148; range 50-365, cut-off=150. Una MVD elevata (> 150 CD31/mm2) è stata osservata in 40 pazienti (49%), una MVD ridotta ( ≤ 150 CD31/mm2 ) in 42 pazienti (51%). Sopravvivenze a 5 anni: 70 % e 95%, rispettivamente per il gruppo ad elevata MVD vs il gruppo a ridotta MVD con una p = 0,0041, statisticamente significativa. Il tipo di resezione chirurgica, il diametro del tumore, le principali comorbidità e l’istotipo nono sono stati fattori predittivi significativi di mortalità correlata alla malattia. La MVD è risultata essere superiore nel gruppo “Adenocarcinoma” (MVD mediana=180) rispetto al gruppo “Non-Adenocarcinoma (MVD mediana=125), con un test di Mann-Whitney statisticamente significativo (p < 0,0001). Nel gruppo “Adenocarcinoma” la sopravvivenza a 5 anni è stata del 66% e 93 %, rispettivamente per i pazienti con MVD elevata e ridotta (p = 0.043. Conclusioni. Il nostro studio ha mostrato che la Microvessel density valutata con la colorazione immunoistochimica per CD31 ha un valore prognostico rilevante nel carcinoma polmonare in stadio precoce pT1aN0M0.

Design and Synthesis of Naphthalene Diimides Based Small Molecules as Anticancer Agents: Targeting the Polyamine Transporter, G-quadruplex Structures and HDAC

Cancer is a multifactorial disease characterized by a very complex etiology. Basing on its complex nature, a promising therapeutic strategy could be based by the “Multi-Target-Directed Ligand” (MTDL) approach, based on the assumption that a single molecule could hit several targets responsible for the pathology. Several agents acting on DNA are clinically used, but the severe deriving side effects limit their therapeutic application. G-quadruplex structures are DNA secondary structures located in key zones of human genome; targeting quadruplex structures could allow obtaining an anticancer therapy more free from side effects. In the last years it has been proved that epigenetic modulation can control the expression of human genes, playing a crucial role in carcinogenesis and, in particular, an abnormal expression of histone deacetylase enzymes are related to tumor onset and progression. This thesis deals with the design and synthesis of new naphthalene diimide (NDI) derivatives endowed with anticancer activity, interacting with DNA together with other targets implicated in cancer development, such as HDACs. NDI-polyamine and NDI-polyamine-hydroxamic acid conjugates have been designed with the aim to provide potential MTDLs, in order to create molecules able simultaneously to interact with different targets involved in this pathology, specifically the G-quadruplex structures and HDAC, and to exploit the polyamine transport system to get selectively into cancer cells. Macrocyclic NDIs have been designed with the aim to improve the quadruplex targeting profile of the disubstituted NDIs. These compounds proved the ability to induce a high and selective stabilization of the quadruplex structures, together with cytotoxic activities in the micromolar range. Finally, trisubstituted NDIs have been developed as G-quadruplex-binders, potentially effective against pancreatic adenocarcinoma. In conclusion, all these studies may represent a promising starting point for the development of new interesting molecules useful for the treatment of cancer, underlining the versatility of the NDI scaffold.

Poly(lactide): from hyperbranched copolyesters to new block copolymers with functional methacrylates

The prologue of this thesis (Chapter 1.0) gives a general overview on lactone based poly(ester) chemistry with a focus on advanced synthetic strategies for ring-opening polymerization, including the emerging field of organo catalysis. This section is followed by a presentation of the state-of the art regarding the two central fields of the thesis: (i) polyfunctional and branched poly(ester)s in Chapter 1.1 as well as (ii) the development of new poly(ester) based block copolymers with functional methacrylates (Chapter 1.2). Chapter 2 deals with the synthesis of new, non-linear poly(ester) structures. In Chapter 2.1, the synthesis of poly(lactide)-based multiarm stars, prepared via a grafting-from method, is described. The hyperbranched poly(ether)-poly(ol) poly(glycerol) is employed as a hydrophilic core molecule. The resulting star block copolymers exhibit potential as phase transfer agents and can stabilize hydrophilic dyes in a hydrophobic environment. In Chapter 2.2, this approach is expanded to poly(glycolide) multiarm star polymers. The problem of the poor solubility of linear poly(glycolide)s in common organic solvents combined with an improvement of the thermal properties has been approached by the reduction of the total chain length. In Chapter 2.3, the first successful synthesis of hyperbranched poly(lactide)s is presented. The ring-opening, multibranching copolymerization of lactide with the “inimer” 5HDON (a hydroxyl-functional lactone monomer) was carefully examined. Besides a precise molecular characterization involving the determination of the degree of branching, we were able to put forward a reaction model for the formation of branching during polymerization. Several innovative approaches to amphiphilic poly(ester)/poly(methacrylate)-based block copolymers are presented in the third part of the thesis (Chapter 3). Block copolymer build-up especially relies on the combination of ring-opening and living radical polymerization. Atom transfer radical polymerization has been successfully combined with lactide ring-opening, using a “double headed” initiator. This strategy allowed for the realization of poly(lactide)-block-poly(2-hydroxyethyl methacrylate) copolymers, which represent promising materials for tissue engineering scaffolds with anti-fouling properties (Chapter 3.1). The two-step/one-pot approach forgoes the use of protecting groups for HEMA by a careful selection of the reaction conditions. A series of potentially biocompatible and partially biodegradable homo- and block copolymers is described in Chapter 3.2. In order to create a block copolymer with a comparably strong hydrophilic character, a new acetal-protected glycerol monomethacrylate monomer (cis-1,3- benzylidene glycerol methacrylate/BGMA) was designed. The hydrophobic poly(BGMA) could be readily transformed into the hydrophilic and water-soluble poly(iso-glycerol methacrylate) (PIGMA) by mild acidic hydrolysis. Block copolymers of PIGMA and poly(lactide) exhibited interesting spherical aggregates in aqueous environment which could be significantly influenced by variation of the poly(lactide)s stereo-structure. In Chapter 3.3, pH-sensitive poly(ethylene glycol)-b-PBGMA copolymers are described. At slightly acidic pH values (pH 4/37°C), they decompose due to a polarity change of the BGMA block caused by progressing acetal cleavage. This stimuli-responsive behavior renders the system highly attractive for the targeted delivery of anti-cancer drugs. In Chapter 3.4, which was realized in cooperation, the concept of biocompatible, amphiphilic poly(lactide) based polymer drug conjugates, was pursued. This was accomplished in the form of fluorescently labeled poly(HPMA)-b-poly(lactide) copolymers. Fluorescence correlation spectroscopy (FCS) of partially biodegradable block copolymer aggregates exhibited fast cellular uptake by human cervix adenocarcinoma cells without showing toxic effects in the examined concentration range (Chapter 4.1). The current state of further projects which will be pursued in future studies is addressed in Chapter 4. This covers the synthesis of biocompatible star block copolymers (Chapter 4.2) and the development of new methacrylate monomers for biomedical applications (Chapters 4.3 and 4.4). Finally, the further investigation of hydroxyl-functional lactones and carbonates which are promising candidates for the synthesis of new hydrophilic linear or hyperbranched biopolymers, is addressed in Chapter 4.5.

Synthese von MUC1-Glycopeptid-Konjugaten mit fluorierten Analoga des Thomsen-Friedenreich-Antigens

Krebserkrankungen gehen oft mit der Überexpression von mucinartigen Glycoproteinen auf der Zelloberfläche einher. In vielen Krebserkrankungen wird aufgrund der fehlerhaften Expression verschiedener Glycosyltransferasen das transmembranständige Glycoprotein MUC1, mit verkürzten Glycanstrukturen, überexprimiert. Das Auftreten der verschiedenen tumor-assoziierten Antigene (TACA) korreliert meist mit dem Fortschreiten des Krebs und der Metastasierung. Daher stellen TACAs interessante Zielmoleküle für die Entwicklung einer aktiven Tumorimmuntherapie zur spezifischen Behandlung von Adenokarzinomen dar. In dieser Arbeit galt das Interesse dem epithelialen Mucin MUC1, auf Basis dessen ein synthetischer Zugang zu einheitlichen Antitumorvakzinen, welche aus mucinanalogen Glyco-peptid¬konjugaten des MUC1 und Carrierproteinen bestehen, hergestellt werden sollten.rnUm eine tumorspezifische Immunantwort zu erhalten, müssen die selbst schwach immunogenen MUC1-Antigene über einen nicht-immunogenen Spacer mit einem geeigneten Trägerprotein, wie Tetanus Toxoid oder Rinderserumalbumin (BSA), verbunden werden. rnDa ein Einsatz von Glycokonjugaten in Impfstoffen durch die metabolische Labilität der O-glycosidischen Bindungen eingeschränkt ist, wurden hierzu erstmals fluorierte Vetreter von MUC1-analogen Glycopeptiden verwendet, in denen das Kohlenhydrat-Epitop durch den strategischen Einbau von Fluor¬atomen gegenüber einem raschen Abbau durch Glycosidasen geschützt werden soll. Dazu wurden auf Basis des literaturbekannten Thomsen-Friedenreich-Antigens Synthesestrategien zur Herstellung eines 2’F- und eines 2’,6’-bisfluorierten-Analogons erarbeitet. rnSchlüsselschritte in der Synthese stellten neben der elektrophilen Fluorierung eines Galactalvorläufers auch die -selektive 3-Galactosylierung des TN-Antigen-Bausteins zum 2’F- und 2’,6’-bisfluorierten-Analogons des TF-Disaccharids dar. Durch entsprechende Schutzgruppentransformationen wurden die beiden Derivate in entsprechende Glycosyl¬amino-säure-Bausteine für die Festphasensynthese überführt.rnNeben den beiden Analoga des TF-Antigens wurde auch erstmals ein 2F-Analogon des 2,6-Sialyl-T-Antigens hergestellt. Dazu wurde der entsprechende 2’F-TF-Baustein mit Sialinsäure-xanthogenat nach bereits bekannten Syntheseprotokollen umgesetzt. Aufgrund von Substanzmangel konnte die Verbindung nicht zur Synthese eines MUC1-Glycopeptid-Analogons herangezogen werden.rnDer Einbau der hergestellten Glycosylaminosäure-Bausteine erfolgte in die aus 20 Amino-säuren bestehende vollständige Wiederholungseinheit aus der tandem repeat-Sequenz des MUC1, wobei die entsprechenden Glycanseitenketten stets in Position 6 eingeführt wurden. Um die erhaltenen Glycopeptide für immunologische Studien an Carrier-Proteine anbinden zu können und so ggf. zu funktionsfähigen Impfstoff-Konjugaten zu gelangen, wurden diese stets N-terminal mit einem nicht-immunogenen Triethylenglycol-Spacer verknüpft. Die anschließende Funktionalisierung mit Quadratsäurediethylester erlaubte die spätere chemoselektive Konjugation an Trägerproteine, wie Tetanus Toxoid oder BSA.rnIn ersten immunologischen Bindungsstudien wurden die synthetisierten BSA-Glycopeptid-Konjugate mit Serum-Antikörpern aus Vakzinierungsstudien von MUC1-Tetanus Toxoid-Konjugaten, die (i) eine natürliche TF-Antigenstruktur und (ii) ein entsprechendes TF-Antigenderivat mit Fluorsubstituenten an C-6 des Galactosamin-Bausteins und C-6’ des Galactoserests tragen, untersucht.rn

La risposta cellulare ai diversi tipi di radiazione tramite espressione genica e radiobiologia sistemica

Questo progetto ha confrontato gli effetti indotti da diversi tipi di radiazioni, diversa intensità delle dosi, diverso rateo di dose su sistemi cellulari differenti. In particolare sono stati seguiti due studi differenti, finalizzati all’indagine degli effetti e dei meccanismi indotti da trattamenti radioterapici su cellule in coltura. Nel primo studio -EXCALIBUR- sono stati investigati i meccanismi di induzione e trasmissione del danno a basse dosi di radiazioni, in funzione della qualità della radiazione (raggi gamma e protoni) e della dose. Cellule di glioblastoma umano (T98G) sono state irraggiate con raggi gamma e protoni a due diverse dosi (0,25 Gy e 2 Gy); in questo studio è stata valutata e analizzata la variazione di espressione genica rilevata utilizzando la tecnologia dei microarray. Per mezzo dell’analisi statistica, con due software diversi, si è osservato come nelle cellule irraggiate si attivino i geni legati alla senescenza cellulare; questo risultato è significativo, visto che potrebbe rappresentare una prospettiva terapeutica interessante per molte neoplasie. Il secondo studio –Plasma Focus- ha lo scopo di ampliare le applicazioni nel settore medicale di una sorgente radiante che produce raggi X ad altissimo rateo di dose (plasma focus). In questo studio, l’attenzione è stata posta sulla preparazione dei campioni biologici per l’irraggiamento. Cellule di adenocarcinoma mammario (MCF7) sono state coltivate in laboratorio e posizionate all’interno di appositi portacampioni pronte per essere irraggiate con raggi X ad alto e a basso rateo di dose. Per mezzo della microscopia ottica e della citometria a flusso in fluorescenza, si è osservato come un rateo di dose elevato provochi danni cellulari superiori. L’analisi quantitativa ha mostrato che, nelle cellule trattate con il plasma focus, il 18% risulti danneggiato rispetto al 7% delle cellule di controllo; con i raggi X convenzionali risulta danneggiato l'8% di cellule, rispetto al 3% delle cellule di controllo.

Utilizzo di cellule MCF-7 in coltura per valutare la presenza di xenoestrogeni e composti genotossici in acque ad uso potabile pre- e post- trattamento

Nelle matrici ambientali sono spesso presenti xenoestrogeni, molecole sintetiche o di origine naturale ad attività estrogenica in grado di alterare il normale equilibrio ormonale di organismi esposti, incidendo negativamente su alcune funzioni vitali come la riproduzione ed il metabolismo. Diverse sostanze chimiche presenti in ambiente, tra cui alcune molecole ad attività estrogenica, sono anche potenziali composti genotossici, in grado, cioè, di interagire con il DNA ed esercitare effetti anche a lungo termine come l’insorgenza di tumori nei vertebrati, uomo compreso. L’obiettivo del presente lavoro di tesi è stato quello di mettere a punto ed utilizzare due saggi biologici, il saggio E-screen ed il test dei micronuclei, per valutare la presenza di xenoestrogeni e composti genotossici in campioni di acque prelevate prima e dopo i trattamenti di potabilizzazione, utilizzando cellule MCF-7 di adenocarcinoma mammario come modello sperimentale in vitro. Le indagini biologiche sono state condotte sulla base di una convenzione di ricerca con la Società acquedottistica Romagna Acque- Società delle fonti e hanno previsto tre campagne di monitoraggio. I campioni di acqua sperimentale, raccolti prima e dopo i trattamenti presso diversi impianti di potabilizzazione, sono stati preventivamente filtrati, estratti in fase solida, fatti evaporare sotto leggero flusso di azoto, ed infine, saggiati sulle cellule. Il test E-screen, di cui abbiamo dimostrato un elevato livello di sensibilità, ha permesso di escludere la presenza di composti ad attività estrogenica nei campioni esaminati. Allo stesso modo, i risultati del test dei micronuclei hanno dimostrato l’assenza di effetti genotossici, confermando la buona qualità delle acque analizzate. Nell’ambito delle attività di monitoraggio, le indagini biologiche risultano essenziali per la valutazione di una potenziale contaminazione ambientale, in quanto forniscono informazioni anche quando non sono state condotte analisi chimiche. Inoltre, anche quando le analisi chimiche siano state condotte, i test biologici informano della potenzialità tossica di una matrice causata eventualmente da sostanze non oggetto del saggio chimico. Infine, i test biologici permettono di identificare eventuali sinergie tra più contaminanti presenti nelle acque, affermandosi come test da condurre in maniera complementare ai saggi chimici. I test biologici come quelli impiegati nel lavoro di tesi sono molto sensibili ed informativi, ma necessitano della definizione di protocolli standardizzati per garantirne un’uniforme applicazione alle acque ad uso potabile, almeno a livello nazionale.

TRAIL signaling is mediated by DR4 in pancreatic tumor cells despite the expression of functional DR5

Tumor necrosis factor related apoptosis-inducing ligand (TRAIL) and agonistic anti-DR4/TRAIL-R1 and anti-DR5/TRAIL-R2 antibodies are currently under clinical investigation for treatment of different malignancies. TRAIL activates DR4 and DR5 and thereby triggers apoptotic and non-apoptotic signaling pathways, but possible different roles of DR4 or DR5 in these responses has poorly been addressed so far. In the present work, we analyzed cell viability, DISC formation as well as IL-8 and NF-kappaB activation side by side in responses to TRAIL and agonistic antibodies against DR4 (mapatumumab) and against DR5 (lexatumumab) in pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma cells. We found that all three reagents are able to activate cell death and pro-inflammatory signaling. Death-inducing signaling complex (DISC) analysis revealed that mapatumumab and lexatumumab induce formation of homocomplexes of either DR4 or DR5, whereas TRAIL additionally stimulated the formation of heterocomplexes of both receptors. Notably, blocking of receptors using DR4- and DR5-specific Fab fragments indicated that TRAIL exerted its function predominantly via DR4. Interestingly, inhibition of PKC by Goe6983 enabled DR5 to trigger apoptotic signaling in response to TRAIL and also strongly enhanced lexatumumab-mediated cell death. Our results suggest the existence of mechanisms that silence DR5 for TRAIL- but not for agonistic-antibody treatment.

Loss of the CBX7 protein expression correlates with a more aggressive phenotype in pancreatic cancer

Polycomb group (PcG) proteins function as multiprotein complexes and are part of a gene regulatory mechanism that determines cell fate during normal and pathogenic development. Several studies have implicated the deregulation of different PcG proteins in neoplastic progression. Pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma is an aggressive neoplasm that follows a multistep model of progression through precursor lesions called pancreatic intraepithelial neoplasia (PanIN). Aim of this study was to investigate the role of PcG protein CBX7 in pancreatic carcinogenesis and to evaluate its possible diagnostic and prognostic significance. We analysed by immunohistochemistry the expression of CBX7 in 210 ductal pancreatic adenocarcinomas from resection specimens, combined on a tissue microarray (TMA) including additional 40 PanIN cases and 40 normal controls. The results were evaluated by using receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve analysis for the selection of cut-off scores and correlated to the clinicopathological parameters of the tumours and the outcome of the patients. Expression of E-cadherin, a protein positively regulated by CBX7, was also assessed. A significantly differential, and progressively decreasing CBX7 protein expression was found between normal pancreatic tissue, PanINs and invasive ductal adenocarcinoma. Loss of CBX7 expression was associated with increasing malignancy grade in pancreatic adenocarcinoma, whereas the maintenance of CBX7 expression showed a trend toward a longer survival. Moreover, loss of E-cadherin expression was associated with loss of CBX7 and with a trend towards worse patient survival. These results suggest that CBX7 plays a role in pancreatic carcinogenesis and that its loss of expression correlates to a more aggressive phenotype.

Changes in CXCL12/CXCR4-chemokine expression during onset of colorectal malignancies

Chemokines have been proposed to contribute to tumour growth and metastatic spread of several cancer entities. Here, we examined the relative levels of CXCL12/CXCR4 in resection specimens from patients with different malignant and non-malignant colorectal diseases as well as colorectal liver metastases (CRLM). CXCL12/CXCR4 mRNA and protein expression profiles were assessed by quantitative real-time PCR, Western blot analysis, enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) and immunohistochemistry in resection specimens from patients with ulcerative colitis (UC; n = 15), colorectal adenoma (CRA; n = 15), colorectal adenocarcinoma (CRC; n = 47) and CRLM (n = 16). Corresponding non-affected tissues served as control. In contrast to UC tissues, CXCL12 showed a distinct down-regulation in CRA, CRC and CRLM specimens, whereas the corresponding receptor CXCR4 demonstrated a significant up-regulation in CRC and CRLM related to corresponding non-affected tissues (p < 0.05, respectively). Our results strongly suggest an association between CXCL12/CXCR4 expression and the induction of CRA, CRC and the development of CRLM. Therefore, CXCR4 may be a potential target for specific therapeutic interventions.

Tumour budding is a strong and independent prognostic factor in pancreatic cancer

Pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC) is a highly aggressive cancer that escapes detection and resists treatment. Tumour budding, defined as the presence of de-differentiated single tumour cells or small cell clusters at the invasive front of gastrointestinal carcinomas like colorectal, oesophageal, gastric and ampullary, is linked to adverse prognosis. Tumour budding has not yet been reported in PDAC.

Tumor budding cells, cancer stem cells and epithelial-mesenchymal transition-type cells in pancreatic cancer

Pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC) is one of the most lethal cancers with a 5-year survival rate of less than 5%. Moreover, PDAC escapes early detection and resists treatment. Multiple combinations of genetic alterations are known to occur in PDAC including mutational activation of KRAS, inactivation of p16/CDKN2A and SMAD4 (DPC4) and dysregulation of PTEN/PI3K/AKT signaling. Through their interaction with Wingless-INT pathway, the downstream molecules of these pathways have been implicated in the promotion of epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT). Emerging evidence has demonstrated that cancer stem cells (CSCs), small populations of which have been identified in PDAC, and EMT-type cells play critical roles in drug resistance, invasion, and metastasis in pancreatic cancer. EMT may be histologically represented by the presence of tumor budding which is described as the occurrence of single tumor cells or small clusters (<5) of dedifferentiated cells at the invasive front of gastrointestinal (including colorectal, oesophageal, gastric, and ampullary) carcinomas and is linked to poor prognosis. Tumor budding has recently been shown to occur frequently in PDAC and to be associated with adverse clinicopathological features and decreased disease-free and overall survival. The aim of this review is to present a short overview on the morphological and molecular aspects that underline the relationship between tumor budding cells, CSCs, and EMT-type cells in PDAC.

Tumor classification of six common cancer types based on proteomic profiling by MALDI imaging

In clinical diagnostics, it is of outmost importance to correctly identify the source of a metastatic tumor, especially if no apparent primary tumor is present. Tissue-based proteomics might allow correct tumor classification. As a result, we performed MALDI imaging to generate proteomic signatures for different tumors. These signatures were used to classify common cancer types. At first, a cohort comprised of tissue samples from six adenocarcinoma entities located at different organ sites (esophagus, breast, colon, liver, stomach, thyroid gland, n = 171) was classified using two algorithms for a training and test set. For the test set, Support Vector Machine and Random Forest yielded overall accuracies of 82.74 and 81.18%, respectively. Then, colon cancer liver metastasis samples (n = 19) were introduced into the classification. The liver metastasis samples could be discriminated with high accuracy from primary tumors of colon cancer and hepatocellular carcinoma. Additionally, colon cancer liver metastasis samples could be successfully classified by using colon cancer primary tumor samples for the training of the classifier. These findings demonstrate that MALDI imaging-derived proteomic classifiers can discriminate between different tumor types at different organ sites and in the same site.

Structural plasticity of spines at giant mossy fiber synapses

The granule cells of the dentate gyrus give rise to thin unmyelinated axons, the mossy fibers. They form giant presynaptic boutons impinging on large complex spines on the proximal dendritic portions of hilar mossy cells and CA3 pyramidal neurons. While these anatomical characteristics have been known for some time, it remained unclear whether functional changes at mossy fiber synapses such as long-term potentiation (LTP) are associated with structural changes. Since subtle structural changes may escape a fine-structural analysis when the tissue is fixed by using aldehydes and is dehydrated in ethanol, rapid high-pressure freezing (HPF) of the tissue was applied. Slice cultures of hippocampus were prepared and incubated in vitro for 2 weeks. Then, chemical LTP (cLTP) was induced by the application of 25 mM tetraethylammonium (TEA) for 10 min. Whole-cell patch-clamp recordings from CA3 pyramidal neurons revealed a highly significant potentiation of mossy fiber synapses when compared to control conditions before the application of TEA. Next, the slice cultures were subjected to HPF, cryosubstitution, and embedding in Epon for a fine-structural analysis. When compared to control tissue, we noticed a significant decrease of synaptic vesicles in mossy fiber boutons and a concomitant increase in the length of the presynaptic membrane. On the postsynaptic side, we observed the formation of small, finger-like protrusions, emanating from the large complex spines. These short protrusions gave rise to active zones that were shorter than those normally found on the thorny excrescences. However, the total number of active zones was significantly increased. Of note, none of these cLTP-induced structural changes was observed in slice cultures from Munc13-1 deficient mouse mutants showing severely impaired vesicle priming and docking. In conclusion, application of HPF allowed us to monitor cLTP-induced structural reorganization of mossy fiber synapses.

Meprinα transactivates the epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) via ligand shedding, thereby enhancing colorectal cancer cell proliferation and migration

Meprinα, an astacin-type metalloprotease is overexpressed in colorectal cancer cells and is secreted in a non-polarized fashion, leading to the accumulation of meprinα in the tumor stroma. The transition from normal colonocytes to colorectal cancer correlates with increased meprinα activity at primary tumor sites. A role for meprinα in invasion and metastatic dissemination is supported by its pro-angiogenic and pro-migratory activity. In the present study, we provide evidence for a meprinα-mediated transactivation of the EGFR signaling pathway and suggest that this mechanism is involved in colorectal cancer progression. Using alkaline phosphatase-tagged EGFR ligands and an ELISA assay, we demonstrate that meprinα is capable of shedding epidermal growth factor (EGF) and transforming growth factor-α (TGFα) from the plasma membrane. Shedding was abrogated using actinonin, an inhibitor for meprinα. The physiological effects of meprinα-mediated shedding of EGF and TGFα were investigated with human colorectal adenocarcinoma cells (Caco-2). Proteolytically active meprinα leads to an increase in EGFR and ERK1/2 phosphorylation and subsequently enhances cell proliferation and migration. In conclusion, the implication of meprinα in the EGFR/MAPK signaling pathway indicates a role of meprinα in colorectal cancer progression.