The functional neuroanatomy of the evolving parent-infant relationship

Infant survival and the development of secure and cooperative relationships are central to the future of the species. In humans, this relies heavily on the evolving early parent–infant social and affective relationship. While much is known about the behavioural and psychological components of this relationship, relatively little is known about the underlying functional neuroanatomy. Affective and social neuroscience has helped to describe the main adult brain networks involved, but has so far engaged very little with developmental findings. In this review, we seek to highlight future avenues for research by providing a coherent framework for describing the parent–infant relationship over the first 18 months. We provide an outline of the evolving nature of the relationship, starting with basic orienting and recognition processes, and culminating in the infant's attainment of higher socio-emotional and cognitive capacities. Key social and affective interactions, such as communication, cooperative play and the establishment of specific attachments propel the development of the parent–infant relationship. We summarise our current knowledge of the developing infant brain in terms of structure and function, and how these relate to the emergent abilities necessary for the formation of a secure and cooperative relationship with parents or other caregivers. Important roles have been found for brain regions including the orbitofrontal, cingulate, and insular cortices in parent–infant interactions, but it has become clear that much more information is needed about the developmental time course and connectivity of these regions.

The persistence of solar activity indicators and the descent of the sun into Maunder Minimum conditions

The recent low and prolonged minimum of the solar cycle, along with the slow growth in activity of the new cycle, has led to suggestions that the Sun is entering a Grand Solar Minimum (GSMi), potentially as deep as the Maunder Minimum (MM). This raises questions about the persistence and predictability of solar activity. We study the autocorrelation functions and predictability R^2_L(t) of solar indices, particularly group sunspot number R_G and heliospheric modulation potential phi for which we have data during the descent into the MM. For R_G and phi, R^2_L (t) > 0.5 for times into the future of t = 4 and 3 solar cycles, respectively: sufficient to allow prediction of a GSMi onset. The lower predictability of sunspot number R_Z is discussed. The current declines in peak and mean R_G are the largest since the onset of the MM and exceed those around 1800 which failed to initiate a GSMi.

Think local, act local? Issues of co-ordination and integration in Local Agenda 21

The political response to the complex package of environmental problems which threaten the future of our planet has been to introduce a new agenda of environmental action based on the principles of sustainability and subsidiarity. This has been crystallised in world agreements signed at the Earth Summit in Rio. One of these, Agenda 21, calls for the governments and communities of the world to prepare action plans for their areas which can build consensus between the various stakeholder groups and feed the principles of sustainable development back into their policies and day-to-day practices. This paper explores the experience of Local Agenda 21 type processes at three levels in the South East of England: the regional, county (sub-regional) and local level. In particular it undertakes a critical appraisal of the success of these participatory and consensus-building exercises in developing an integrated and co-ordinated approach to environmental action planning. It concludes that, although much useful work has been done in raising awareness and modifying policy and practice, there are significant cultural and institutional barriers which are hindering progress.

Sustainable land management and development: the role of the chartered surveyor

Despite the growing intensity of the debate about environmental management, it is only recently that rural practice surveyors have become aware of its significance and potential. Consequently, few surveyors are yet in a position to offer professional advice, despite evidence from the RICS's client needs survey that nearly half of all existing clients require more advice on environmental matters. As a prerequisite to becoming involved in environmental management, it is clear that chartered surveyors have to develop new skills alongside new perceptions of their work. Rather than being conterminous, however, the alignment of these attributes reflects a fundamental tension. This is focused on the dichotomy between the strategic construction of the environment as a basis for realigning corporate policy and the more limited evocation of environmentalism as potential new business. This paper seeks to explore the nature and policy context of sustainable development, in the process examining its significance for rural chartered surveyors. In doing so, the paper will seek to contrast the essentially anthropocentric utilitarianism of surveyors' current attitudes with the radical agenda inferred by a more ecocentric, sustainable development approach to professional management and advice. The paper will conclude with a discussion about how far the principles of sustainable development can be incorporated into the management of surveying businesses, and what this implies for the future of the rural practice chartered surveyor as land manager.

Sustainable urban development to 2050: complex transitions in the built environment of cities

The majority of the world’s population now live in cities. This poses great challenges, but also great opportunities in terms of tackling climate change, resource depletion and environmental degradation. Policy agendas have increasingly focused on how to develop and maintain ‘integrated sustainable urban development’, and a number of theoretical conceptualisations of urban transition have been formulated to help our thinking and understanding in both developed and developing countries. Drawing on examples around the world the paper aims to examine the key ‘critical success factors’ that need to be in place for cities to traverse a pathway to a more sustainable future in urban development terms by 2050. The paper explores how important the issues of ‘scale’ is in the context of complexity and fragmentation in the city’s built environment, identifies the lessons that can be learned for future sustainable urban development, and the further research which is needed to address future urban transitions to 2050.

Perceptions of informal safety nets: a case study from a South African informal settlement

The relevance and importance of informal safety nets that buffer poor households from livelihood hardships have been given little attention in South Africa’s development programmes to date. This article contributes to the understanding of informal safety nets by investigating local perceptions in a South African informal settlement. The main findings of the study are that families perform an important safety net function, but that these sources of assistance can be susceptible to social isolation. Immediate neighbours and friends also play an important safety net role, but these reciprocal-based sources of assistance may be difficult to secure. Community-wide threats can have a severe impact on people’s ability to engage in safety net transfers. Many of these difficulties stem from South Africa’s structural unemployment crisis. This factor is the greatest danger to the future of the informal safety net system in the informal settlement.

Scheduling satellite-based SAR acquisition for sequential assimilation of water level observations into flood modelling

Satellite-based Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) has proved useful for obtaining information on flood extent, which, when intersected with a Digital Elevation Model (DEM) of the floodplain, provides water level observations that can be assimilated into a hydrodynamic model to decrease forecast uncertainty. With an increasing number of operational satellites with SAR capability, information on the relationship between satellite first visit and revisit times and forecast performance is required to optimise the operational scheduling of satellite imagery. By using an Ensemble Transform Kalman Filter (ETKF) and a synthetic analysis with the 2D hydrodynamic model LISFLOOD-FP based on a real flooding case affecting an urban area (summer 2007,Tewkesbury, Southwest UK), we evaluate the sensitivity of the forecast performance to visit parameters. We emulate a generic hydrologic-hydrodynamic modelling cascade by imposing a bias and spatiotemporal correlations to the inflow error ensemble into the hydrodynamic domain. First, in agreement with previous research, estimation and correction for this bias leads to a clear improvement in keeping the forecast on track. Second, imagery obtained early in the flood is shown to have a large influence on forecast statistics. Revisit interval is most influential for early observations. The results are promising for the future of remote sensing-based water level observations for real-time flood forecasting in complex scenarios.

Wall materials and techniques available for low cost housing in Khartoum from a sustainability point of view

Khartoum like many cities in least developing countries (LDCs) still witnesses huge influx of people. Accommodation of the new comers leads to encroachment on the cultivation land leads to sprawl expansion of Greater Khartoum. The city expanded in diameter from 16.8 km in 1955 to 802.5 km in 1998. Most of this horizontal expansion was residential. In 2008 Khartoum accommodated 29% of the urban population of Sudan. Today Khartoum is considered as one of 43 major cities in Africa that accommodates more than 1 million inhabitants. Most of new comers live in the outskirts of the city e.g. Dar El-Salam and Mayo neighbourhoods. The majority of those new comers built their houses especially the walls from mud, wood, straw and sacks. Selection of building materials usually depends on its price regardless of the environmental impact, quality, thermal performance and life of the material. Most of the time, this results in increasing the cost with variables of impacts over the environment during the life of the building. Therefore, consideration of the environmental impacts, social impacts and economic impacts is crucial in the selection of any building material. Decreasing such impacts could lead to more sustainable housing. Comparing the sustainability of the available wall building materials for low cost housing in Khartoum is carried out through the life cycle assessment (LCA) technique. The purpose of this paper is to compare the most available local building materials for walls for the urban poor of Khartoum from a sustainability point of view by going through the manufacturing of the materials, the use of these materials and then the disposal of the materials after their life comes to an end. Findings reveal that traditional red bricks couldn’t be considered as a sustainable wall building material that will draw the future of the low cost housing in Greater Khartoum. On the other hand, results of the comparison lead to draw attention to the wide range of the soil techniques and to its potentials to be a promising sustainable wall material for urban low cost housing in Khartoum.

Roman public libraries

This thesis aims to investigate the development and functions of public libraries in Rome and the Roman world. After a preface with maps of libraries in Rome, Section I discusses the precursors for public library provision in the private book collections of Republican Rome, and their transfer into the public domain with the first public libraries of Asinius Pollio and Augustus. Section II contains three 'case studies' of public libraries' different roles. The Augustan library programme is used in Ch.II.l to examine the role of imperial public libraries in literary life and the connections between Rome's libraries and those of Alexandria. Chapter II.2 concentrates on the libraries of Trajan's Forum to explore the intersection of imperial public libraries and monumental public architecture. This chapter responds to an important recent article by arguing for the continued identification of the Forum's libraries with twin brick buildings at its northern end, and suggests a series of correspondences between these libraries and its other monumental components. The conclusions of this chapter are important when considering the public libraries of the wider empire, several of which seem to have been inspired by the Trajanic libraries. Chapter II.3 considers imperial public libraries and leisure by looking at the evidence for libraries within bath-house complexes, concluding that their presence there is consistent with the archaeological and epigraphic evidence and fits in well with what we know of the intellectual and cultural life of these structures. Section III examines various aspects of the practical function of Roman public libraries: their contents (books and archives), division into Latin and Greek sections, provisions for shelving and cataloguing, staff, usership, architectural form, decoration, and housing of works of art. The picture that emerges is of carefully designed and functional buildings intended to sustain public, monumental, and practical functions. Section IV uses a variety of texts to examine the way in which libraries were viewed and used. Ch. IV. 1 discusses the evidence for use of libraries by scholars and authors such as Gellius, Galen, Josephus, and Apuleius. Ch. IV.2 examines parallels between library collections and compendious encyclopaedic elements within Roman literature and considers how library collections came to be canon-forming institutions and vehicles for the expression of imperial approval or disapproval towards authors. The channels through which this imperial influence flowed are investigated in Ch. IV.3, which looks at the directors and staff of the public libraries of Rome. The final section (V) of the thesis concerns public libraries outside the city of Rome. Provincial libraries provide a useful case study in 'Romanisation': they reveal a range of influences and are shown to embody local, personal, and metropolitan imperial identities. There follows a brief conclusion, and a bibliography. There are also five appendices of numismatic and epigraphic material discussed in the text. This material has not been adequately or completely gathered elsewhere and is intended to assist the reader; where appropriate it includes illustrations, transcriptions, and translations.

Optimal planning of cocoa clonal selection programmes

Data from three cocoa (Theobroma cacao) clonal selection trials are used to investigate the genetic and environmental components of variation in yield and the percentage of total pods affected by black pod disease (Phytophtora pod rot). Simulations based on these estimated components of variation are then used to discuss the best choice in future of numbers of clones, replicates and years of harvest to maximise selection advances in the traits measured. The three main conclusions are the need to increase the number of clones at the expense of the number of replicates of each clone, the diminishing returns from additional years of harvesting and the importance of widening the genetic base of the clones chosen to be tested.

Trust in authorities monitoring the distribution of genetically modified foods: dimensionality, measurement issues, and determinants

Based on a combined internet and mail survey in Germany the independence of indica-tors of trust in public authorities from indicators of attitudes toward genetically modified food is tested. Despite evidence of a link between trust indicators on the one hand and evaluation of benefits and perceived likelihoods of risks, correlation with other factors is found to be moderate on average. But the trust indicators exhibit only a moderate relation with the re-spondents’ preference for either sole public control or a cooperation of public and private bodies in the monitoring of GM food distribution. Instead, age and location in either the New or the Old Lander are found to be significantly related with such preferences.

The Cold War and its aftermath in the Americas: the search for a synthetic interpretation of U.S. policy

More than two decades have passed since the fall of the Berlin Wall and the transfer of the Cold War file from a daily preoccupation of policy makers to a more detached assessment by historians. Scholars of U.S.-Latin American relations are beginning to take advantage both of the distance in time and of newly opened archives to reflect on the four decades that, from the 1940s to the 1980s, divided the Americas, as they did much of the world. Others are seeking to understand U.S. policy and inter-American relations in the post-Cold War era, a period that not only lacks a clear definition but also still has no name. Still others have turned their gaze forward to offer policies in regard to the region for the new Obama administration. Numerous books and review essays have addressed these three subjects—the Cold War, the post-Cold War era, and current and future issues on the inter-American agenda. Few of these studies attempt, however, to connect the three subjects or to offer new and comprehensive theories to explain the course of U.S. policies from the beginning of the twentieth century until the present. Indeed, some works and policy makers continue to use the mind-sets of the Cold War as though that conflict were still being fought. With the benefit of newly opened archives, some scholars have nevertheless drawn insights from the depths of the Cold War that improve our understanding of U.S. policies and inter-American relations, but they do not address the question as to whether the United States has escaped the longer cycle of intervention followed by neglect that has characterized its relations with Latin America. Another question is whether U.S. policies differ markedly before, during, and after the Cold War. In what follows, we ask whether the books reviewed here provide any insights in this regard and whether they offer a compass for the future of inter-American relations. We also offer our own thoughts as to how their various perspectives could be synthesized to address these questions more comprehensively.

Echoes of 1992: the NAFTA negotiations and North America now

Two decades ago, Canada, Mexico, and the United States created a continental economy. The road to integration from the signing of the North American Free Trade Agreement has not been a smooth one. Along the way, Mexico lived through a currency crisis, a democratic transition, and the rising challenge of Asian manufacturing. Canada stayed united despite surging Quebecois nationalism during the 1990s; since then, it has seen dramatic economic changes with the explosion of hydrocarbon production and a much stronger currency. The United States saw a stock-market bust, the shock of 9/11, and the near-collapse of its financial system. All of these events have transformed the relationships that emerged after NAFTA entered into force in 1994. Given the tremendous changes, one might be skeptical that the circumstances and details of the negotiation and ratification of NAFTA hold lessons for the future of North America. However, the road to NAFTA had its own difficulties, and many of the issues involved in the negotiations underpin today's challenges. NAFTA was conceived at a time of profound change in the international system. When Mexican leaders surveyed the world two decades ago, they saw emerging regional groupings in Europe, Asia, and South America. Faced with a lack of interest or compatibility, they instead doubled down on North America. How did Mexican leaders reconsider their national interests and redefine Mexico's role in the world in light of those transformations? Unpublished Mexican documents from SECOFI, the secretariate most involved in negotiating NAFTA, help illustrate Mexican thinking about its interests and role at that time. Combining those insights with analysis of newly available evidence from U.S. presidential archives, this paper sheds light on the negotiations that concluded two decades ago.