Bacterial infections in cirrhosis: a position statement based on the EASL Special Conference 2013.

Bacterial infections are very common and represent one of the most important reasons of progression of liver failure, development of liver-related complications, and mortality in patients with cirrhosis. In fact, bacterial infections may be a triggering factor for the occurrence of gastrointestinal bleeding, hypervolemic hyponatremia, hepatic encephalopathy, kidney failure, and development of acute-on-chronic liver failure. Moreover, infections are a very common cause of repeated hospitalizations, impaired health-related quality of life, and increased healthcare costs in cirrhosis. Bacterial infections develop as a consequence of immune dysfunction that occurs progressively during the course of cirrhosis. In a significant proportion of patients, infections are caused by gram-negative bacteria from intestinal origin, yet gram-positive bacteria are a frequent cause of infection, particularly in hospitalized patients. In recent years, infections caused by multidrug-resistant bacteria are becoming an important clinical problem in many countries. The reduction of the negative clinical impact of infections in patients with cirrhosis may be achieved by a combination of prophylactic measures, such as administration of antibiotics, to reduce the occurrence of infections in high-risk groups together with early identification and management of infection once it has developed. Investigation on the mechanisms of altered gut microflora, translocation of bacteria, and immune dysfunction may help develop more effective and safe methods of prevention compared to those that are currently available. Moreover, research on biomarkers of early infection may be useful in early diagnosis and treatment of infections. The current manuscript reports an in-depth review and a position statement on bacterial infections in cirrhosis.

Comparison of Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium colitis in germfree mice and mice pretreated with streptomycin.

Salmonella enterica subspecies 1 serovar Typhimurium is a common cause of bacterial enterocolitis. Mice are generally protected from Salmonella serovar Typhimurium colonization and enterocolitis by their resident intestinal microflora. This phenomenon is called "colonization resistance" (CR). Two murine Salmonella serovar Typhimurium infection models are based on the neutralization of CR: (i) in specific-pathogen-free mice pretreated with streptomycin (StrSPF mice) antibiotics disrupt the intestinal microflora; and (ii) germfree (GF) mice are raised without any intestinal microflora, but their intestines show distinct physiologic and immunologic characteristics. It has been unclear whether the same pathogenetic mechanisms trigger Salmonella serovar Typhimurium colitis in GF and StrSPF mice. In this study, we compared the two colitis models. In both of the models Salmonella serovar Typhimurium efficiently colonized the large intestine and triggered cecum and colon inflammation starting 8 h postinfection. The type III secretion system encoded in Salmonella pathogenicity island 1 was essential in both disease models. Thus, Salmonella serovar Typhimurium colitis is triggered by similar pathogenetic mechanisms in StrSPF and GF mice. This is remarkable considering the distinct physiological properties of the GF mouse gut. One obvious difference was more pronounced damage and reduced regenerative response of the cecal epithelium in GF mice. Overall, StrSPF mice and GF mice provide similar but not identical models for Salmonella serovar Typhimurium colitis.

Mosaic pattern of sucrase isomaltase deficiency in two brothers

The pathophysiology of mucosal changes observed in infants with chronic protracted diarrhea is poorly understood. We report on two brothers suffering from a special form of sucrase isomaltase (SI) deficiency. The children presented with weight loss and dyspepsia after sucrose exposition. We performed an H respiration test, which showed a pathologic result in the younger brother. Analysis of the brush border enzyme activities showed low expression of lactase and SI. Immunoelectron microscopy of duodenal biopsies showed an isolated SI deficiency in a mosaic pattern [e.g., 42% (14%) crypt enterocytes and 64% (59%) villus enterocytes with decreased amounts of SI on microvilli], whereas lactase and aminopeptidase n (ApN) were present at the apical membrane of all cells in a normal range. The SI mosaic pattern of these patients shows that the enterocytes contain low amounts of SI on the apical membrane but express normal quantities of other disaccharidases. These findings suggest the existence of different clonal expressions or specific (posttranslational) mechanisms of postGolgi transportation for individual brush border enzymes. It remains unresolved whether the mosaic distribution is part of a normal maturation process or caused by a lack of an overall control mechanism in the expression of brush border hydrolases.

Secondary analysis of effectivness of tinidazole-containing-quadruple eradication therapy in asymptomatic H. pylori infected children in El Paso

Helicobacter pylori infection is frequently acquired during childhood. This microorganism is known to cause gastritis, and duodenal ulcer in pediatric patients, however most children remain completely asymptomatic to the infection. Currently there is no consensus in favor of treatment of H. pylori infection in asymptomatic children. The firstline of treatment for this population is triple medication therapy including two antibacterial agents and one proton pump inhibitor for a 2 week duration course. Decreased eradication rate of less than 75% has been documented with the use of this first-line therapy but novel tinidazole-containing quadruple sequential therapies seem worth investigating. None of the previous studies on such therapy has been done in the United States of America. As part of an iron deficiency anemia study in asymptomatic H. pylori infected children of El Paso, Texas, we conducted a secondary data analysis of study data collected in this trial to assess the effectiveness of this tinidazole-containing sequential quadruple therapy compared to placebo on clearing the infection. Subjects were selected from a group of asymptomatic children identified through household visits to 11,365 randomly selected dwelling units. After obtaining parental consent and child assent a total of 1,821 children 3-10 years of age were screened and 235 were positive to a novel urine immunoglobulin class G antibodies test for H. pylori infection and confirmed as infected using a 13C urea breath test, using a hydrolysis urea rate >10 μg/min as cut-off value. Out of those, 119 study subjects had a complete physical exam and baseline blood work and were randomly allocated to four groups, two of which received active H. pylori eradication medication alone or in combination with iron, while the other two received iron only or placebo only. Follow up visits to their houses were done to assess compliance and occurrence of adverse events and at 45+ days post-treatment, a second urea breath test was performed to assess their infection status. The effectiveness was primarily assessed on intent to treat basis (i.e., according to their treatment allocation), and the proportion of those who cleared their infection using a cut-off value >10 μg/min of for urea hydrolysis rate, was the primary outcome. Also we conducted analysis on a per-protocol basis and according to the cytotoxin associated gene A product of the H. pylori infection status. Also we compared the rate of adverse events across the two arms. On intent-to-treat and per-protocol analyses, 44.3% and 52.9%, respectively, of the children receiving the novel quadruple sequential eradication cleared their infection compared to 12.2% and 15.4% in the arms receiving iron or placebo only, respectively. Such differences were statistically significant (p<0.001). The study medications were well accepted and safe. In conclusion, we found in this study population, of mostly asymptomatically H. pylori infected children, living in the US along the border with Mexico, that the quadruple sequential eradication therapy cleared the infection in only half of the children receiving this treatment. Research is needed to assess the antimicrobial susceptibility of the strains of H. pylori infecting this population to formulate more effective therapies. ^

Genetic analysis of Pitx2 in left -right asymmetry and cardiovascular development

Pitx2, a paired-related homeobox gene that is mutated in human Rieger Syndrome, plays a key role in transferring the early asymmetric signals to individual organs. Pitx2 encodes three isoforms, Pitx2a, Pitx2b and Pitx2c. I found that Pitx2c was the Pitx2 isoform for regulating left-right asymmetry in heart, lung and the predominant isoform in guts. Previous studies suggested that the generation of left-right asymmetry within individual organs is an all or none, random event. Phenotypic analysis of various Pitx2 allelic combinations, that encode graded levels of Pitx2c, reveals an organ-intrinsic mechanism for regulating left-right asymmetric morphogenesis based on differential response to Pitx2c levels. The heart needs low Pitx2c levels, while the lungs and duodenum require higher doses of Pitx2c. In addition, the duodenal rotation is under strict control of Pitx2c activity. Left-right asymmetry development for aortic arch arteries involves complex vascular remodeling. Left-sided expression of Pitx2c in these developing vessels implied its potential function in this process. In order to determine if Pitx2c also can regulate the left-right asymmetry of the aortic arch arteries, a Pitx2c-specific loss of function mutation is generated. Although in wild type mice, the direction of the aortic arch is always oriented toward the left side, the directions of the aortic arches in the mutants were randomized, showing that Pitx2c also determined the left-right asymmetry of these vessels. I have further showed that the cardiac neural crest wasn't involved in this vascular remodeling process. In addition, all mutant embryos had Double Outlet Right Ventricle (DORV), a common congenital heart disease. This study provided insight into the mechanism of Pitx2c-mediated late stages of left-right asymmetry development and identified the roles of Pitx2c in regulation of aortic arch remodeling and heart development. ^

Radiocarbon dates of sediments from ODP Site 161-976

Multiproxy paleoenvironmental records (pollen and planktonic isotope) from Ocean Drilling Program Site 976 (Alboran Sea) document rapid ocean and climate variations during the last glacial that follow the Dansgaard-Oeschger climate oscillations seen in the Greenland ice core records, thus suggesting a close link of the Mediterranean climate swings with North Atlantic climates. Continental conditions rapidly oscillated through cold-arid and warm-wet conditions in the course of stadial-interstadial climate jumps. At the time of Heinrich events, i.e., maximum meltwater flux to the North Atlantic, western Mediterranean marine microflora and microfauna show rapid cooling correlated with increasing continental dryness. Enhanced aridity conceivably points to prolonged wintertime stability of atmospheric high-pressure systems over the southwestern Mediterranean in conjunction with cooling of the North Atlantic.

(Table 1) Species abundance at DSDP Hole 63-467

Neogene palynofloras of southern California have been all too infrequently studied. Previous investigations of Pacific Coast sediments have been largely restricted to Pacific Northwest locales. Some important studies include those by Gray (1964), Wolfe, Hopkins, and Leopold (1966), Wolfe and Leopold (1967), Hopkins (1968), Piel (1969, 1977), Ballog, Sparks, and Waloweek (1972), and Musich (1973). The only published study of southern California materials is that of Heusser (1978) on Holocene sediments of the Santa Barbara basin. Most of these studies are concerned with the microflora from a particular formation; thus they have limited stratigraphic value and in most cases involve nonmarine to marginal marine rocks where no planktonic zonation was available. Musich's (1973) study was the first attempt at tying pollen assemblages to a planktonic zonation over an extended stratigraphic interval (Miocene to Pleistocene).Its location in the southern California Borderland and the sedimentary sections sampled make Leg 63 extremely valuable in deciphering the palynologic history of the Pacific Coast Neogene. Site 467 was chosen for our initial detailed study, because the relatively slow sedimentation rate provides an almost complete Neogene sequence of mainly terrigenous sediments and reliable planktonic age control is available.The goals of this study were to: (1) establish a reference section of Neogene palynomorph assemblages; (2) develop biostratigraphic criteria for use in correlation with other localities; (3) correlate the palynologic assemblages with the planktonic zonations; and (4) study the paleoenvironmental history in the southern California Neogene.

Isotopic and micropaleontological record of sediments of the Baffin Bay

The oxygen and carbon isotopic compositions of the planktonic foraminifer, Neogloboquadrina pachyderma (sinistral), were determined at 20-cm intervals through the 'composite' top ~ 22 m of sediments at ODP Site 645 (Holes 645B, 645C, 645F, and 645G) and at 10-cm intervals through a 9-m piston core (85-027-016) collected during the Hudson site survey. Quantitative analyses of palynomorphs, notably dinocysts, and of planktonic foraminifers were performed. Organic and nitrogen contents and isotopic composition of nitrogen and carbon in organic matter also were determined. These data provide a high-resolution record of changes that occurred in surface-water masses during the last glacial cycle in Baffin Bay. The basin experienced low planktonic productivity during most of the late Pleistocene, either from dilution in surface water by meltwater discharges from the surrounding ice-sheet or from the presence of a relatively dense sea-ice cover. Peaks of meltwater discharge are indicated by d18O values as low as about 1.5 per mil, correlative d13C- d18O shifts, low concentration of planktonic foraminifers, high concentrations of glacially reworked pre-Quaternary palynomorphs, and low-salinity dinocyst assemblages. As a whole, d18O values ranging between 4.5 and 2.5 per mil allow the establishment of an 18O stratigraphy spanning isotopic stages 5 to 1. Because of the poor core recovery, the general paucity of microflora and microfauna, and the possible occurrence of slumping or debris flow at Site 645, further interpretation remains problematic.

Palynology, source vegetation, environment and age of ODP Site 188-1166 sediments

Twenty-three core catcher samples from Site 1166 (Hole 1166A) in Prydz Bay were analyzed for their palynomorph content, with the aims of determining the ages of the sequence penetrated, providing information on the vegetation of the Antarctic continent at this time, and determining the environments under which deposition occurred. Dinocysts, pollen and spores, and foraminiferal test linings were recovered from most samples in the interval from 142.5 to 362.03 meters below seafloor (mbsf). The interval from 142.5 to 258.72 mbsf yielded palynomorphs indicative of a middle-late Eocene age, equivalent to the lower-middle Nothofagidites asperus Zone of the Gippsland Basin of southeastern Australia. The Prydz Bay sequence represents the first well-dated section of this age from East Antarctica. Dinocysts belonging to the widespread "Transantarctic Flora" give a more confident late Eocene age for the interval 142.5-220.5 mbsf. The uppermost two cores within this interval, namely, those from 142.5 and 148.36 mbsf, show significantly higher frequencies of dinocysts than the cores below and suggest that an open marine environment prevailed at the time of deposition. The spore and pollen component may reflect a vegetation akin to the modern rainforest scrubs of Tasmania and New Zealand. Below 267 mbsf, sparse microfloras, mainly of spores and pollen, are equated with the Phyllocladidites mawsonii Zone of southeastern Australia, which is of Turonian to possibly Santonian age. Fluvial to marginal marine environments of deposition are suggested. The parent vegetation from this interval is here described as "Austral Conifer Woodland." The same Late Cretaceous microflora occurs in two of the cores above the postulated unconformity at 267 mbsf. In the core at 249.42 mbsf, the Late Cretaceous spores and pollen are uncontaminated by any Tertiary forms, suggesting that a clast of this older material has been sampled; such a clast may reflect transport by ice during the Eocene. At 258.72 mbsf, Late Cretaceous spores and pollen appear to have been recycled into the Eocene sediments.

Siliceous phytoplankton in middle Eocene sediments of ODP Hole 207-1260A

The Middle Eocene diatom and silicoflagellate record of ODP Site 1260A (Demerara Rise) is studied quantitatively in order to throw light on the changes that siliceous phytoplankton communities experienced during a Middle Eocene warming event that occurred between 44.0 and 42.0 Ma. Both Pianka's overlap index, calculated per couple of successive samples, and cluster analysis, point to a number of significant turnover events highlighted by changes in the structure of floristic communities. The pre-warming flora, dominated by cosmopolitan species of the diatom genus Triceratium, is replaced during the warming interval by a new and more diverse assemblage, dominated by Paralia sulcata (an indicator of high productivity) and two endemic tropical species of the genus Hemiaulus. The critical warming interval is characterized by a steady increase in biogenic silica and a comparable increase in excess Ba, both reflecting an increase in productivity. In general, it appears that high productivity not only increased the flux of biogenic silica, but also sustained a higher diversity in the siliceous phytoplankton communities. The microflora preserved above the critical interval is once again of low diversity and dominated by various species of the diatom genus Hemiaulus. All assemblages in the studied material are characterized by the total absence of continental and benthic diatoms and the relative abundance of neritic forms, suggesting a transitional depositional environment between the neritic and the oceanic realms.

Composition of organic matter in waters of the Barents Sea

Concentration of dissolved and suspended organic carbon in the Barents Sea decreases with increasing depth and in meridional direction from south to north. This fact is attributed to uneven supply of organic matter (OM) from different sources. Large amounts of OM are present in the water column of the Barents Sea, which is a result of high productivity of this water mass and slow decomposition of OM at low temperatures and lowered activity of microflora. Larger amount of OM reaches bottom sediments of the Barents Sea more than in seas, which have similar depth and productivity, but are located at low latitudes. Characteristic features of distribution of lipids and suspended matter in sea water are examined.

Abundance and Biomass from heterotrophic bacteria, Synechococcus, Prochlorococcus and Virus in the eastern Mediteranean Sea in October 2008 during SES_GR2

The HCMR_SES_LAGRANGIAN_GR2_ MICROBIAL PARAMETERS dataset is based on samples collected in the framework of the project SESAME, in the North Aegean Sea during October 2008. The objectives were to measure the standing stocks and calculate the production of the microbial compartment of the food web, describe the vertical distribution pattern and characterize its structure and function through the water column as influenced by the BSW. Heterotrophic bacteria, Synechococcus, Prochlorococcus and Virus abundance: Subsamples for virus, heterotrophic bacteria and cyanobacteria (Synechococcus spp. and Prochlorococcus spp.) counting were analyzed using a FACSCalibur (Becton Dickinson) flow cytometer equipped with a standard laser (488 nm) and filter set and using deionized water as sheath fluid. Fluorescent beads with a diameter of 0.97 µm (Polysciences) were added to each sample as an internal standard, and all parameters were normalized to the beads and expressed as relative units. SYBRGreen I stain (Molecular Probe) was used to stain viral and heterotrophic bacterial DNA. Viruses were counted according to (Brussaard 1984). In order to avoid bulk consentrations of viruses samples we dilluted to Tris-EDTA (pH=8,0) buffer to a final sollution of 1/5 to 1/100. Total abundance and nucleid content classes were calculated using the Paint-A-Gate software (Becton Dickinson). Heterotrophic Nanoflagellate abundance: Subsamples (30-150 ml) were concentrated on 25mm black polycarbonate filters of porosity 0.6?m and stained with DAPI for 10 min (Porter and Feig 1980). Under epifluorescence microscopy heterotrophic nanoflagellates (HNAN) were distinguished using UV and blue excitation and enumerated. Nanoflagellates were classified in size categories and the biovolume was calculated. Ciliate abundance: For ciliate identification and enumeration, 100-3000 ml samples were left for 24h-4d for sedimentation and then observed under an inverted microscope. Ciliates were counted, distinguished into size-classes and major taxonomic groups and identified down to genus or species level where possible (Pitta et al. 2005). Heterotrophic bacteria, Synechococcus, Prochlorococcus bacteria: Subsamples for virus, heterotrophic bacteria and cyanobacteria (Synechococcus spp. and Prochlorococcus spp.) counting were analyzed using a FACSCalibur (Becton Dickinson) flow cytometer equipped with a standard laser (488 nm) and filter set and using deionized water as sheath fluid. Fluorescent beads with a diameter of 0.97 µm (Polysciences) were added to each sample as an internal standard, and all parameters were normalized to the beads and expressed as relative units. SYBRGreen I stain (Molecular Probe) was used to stain viral and heterotrophic bacterial DNA. Viruses were counted according to (Brussaard 1984). In order to avoid bulk consentrations of viruses samples we dilluted to Tris-EDTA (pH=8,0) buffer to a final sollution of 1/5 to 1/100. Total abundance and nucleid content classes were calculated using the Paint-A-Gate software (Becton Dickinson). Abundance data were converted into C biomass using 250 fgC cell-1 (Kana & Glibert 1987) for Synechococcus, 50 fgC cell-1 (Campbell et al. 1994) for Prochlorococcus and 20fgC cell-1 (Lee & Fuhrman 1987) for heterotrophic bacteria. Heterotrophic Nanoflagellate biomass: Subsamples (30-150 ml) were concentrated on 25mm black polycarbonate filters of porosity 0.6µm and stained with DAPI for 10 min (Porter and Feig 1980). Under epifluorescence microscopy heterotrophic nanoflagellates (HNAN) were distinguished using UV and blue excitation and enumerated. Nanoflagellates were classified in size categories and the biovolume was calculated. Abundance data were converted into C biomass using 183 fgC µm**3 (Caron et al. 1995). Ciliate biomass: For ciliate identification and enumeration, 100-3000 ml samples were left for 24h-4d for sedimentation and then observed under an inverted microscope. Ciliates were counted, distinguished into size-classes and major taxonomic groups and identified down to genus or species level where possible (Pitta et al. 2005). Ciliate cell sizes were measured and converted into cell volumes using appropriate geometric formulae using image analysis. For biomass estimation, the conversion factor 190 fgC µm**3 was used (Putt and Stoecker 1989).

Abundance and Biomass from heterotrophic bacteria, Synechococcus, Prochlorococcus and Virus in the Aegean Sea in April 2008 during SES_GR1

The HCMR_SES_LAGRANGIAN_GR1_ MICROBIAL PARAMETERS dataset is based on samples collected in the framework of the project SESAME, in the North Aegean Sea during April 2008. The objectives were to measure the standing stocks and calculate the production of the microbial compartment of the food web, describe the vertical distribution pattern and characterize its structure and function through the water column as influenced by the BSW. Heterotrophic bacteria, Synechococcus, Prochlorococcus and Virus abundance: Subsamples for virus, heterotrophic bacteria and cyanobacteria (Synechococcus spp. and Prochlorococcus spp.) counting were analyzed using a FACSCalibur (Becton Dickinson) flow cytometer equipped with a standard laser (488 nm) and filter set and using deionized water as sheath fluid. Fluorescent beads with a diameter of 0.97 µm (Polysciences) were added to each sample as an internal standard, and all parameters were normalized to the beads and expressed as relative units. SYBRGreen I stain (Molecular Probe) was used to stain viral and heterotrophic bacterial DNA. Viruses were counted according to (Brussaard 1984). In order to avoid bulk consentrations of viruses samples we dilluted to Tris-EDTA (pH=8,0) buffer to a final sollution of 1/5 to 1/100. Total abundance and nucleid content classes were calculated using the Paint-A-Gate software (Becton Dickinson). Heterotrophic Nanoflagellate abundance: Subsamples (30-150 ml) were concentrated on 25mm black polycarbonate filters of porosity 0.6µm and stained with DAPI for 10 min (Porter and Feig 1980). Under epifluorescence microscopy heterotrophic nanoflagellates (HNAN) were distinguished using UV and blue excitation and enumerated. Nanoflagellates were classified in size categories and the biovolume was calculated. Ciliate abundance: For ciliate identification and enumeration, 100-3000 ml samples were left for 24h-4d for sedimentation and then observed under an inverted microscope. Ciliates were counted, distinguished into size-classes and major taxonomic groups and identified down to genus or species level where possible (Pitta et al. 2005). Heterotrophic bacteria, Synechococcus, Prochlorococcus biomass: Subsamples for virus, heterotrophic bacteria and cyanobacteria (Synechococcus spp. and Prochlorococcus spp.) counting were analyzed using a FACSCalibur (Becton Dickinson) flow cytometer equipped with a standard laser (488 nm) and filter set and using deionized water as sheath fluid. Fluorescent beads with a diameter of 0.97 µm (Polysciences) were added to each sample as an internal standard, and all parameters were normalized to the beads and expressed as relative units. SYBRGreen I stain (Molecular Probe) was used to stain viral and heterotrophic bacterial DNA. Viruses were counted according to (Brussaard 1984). In order to avoid bulk consentrations of viruses samples we dilluted to Tris-EDTA (pH=8,0) buffer to a final sollution of 1/5 to 1/100. Total abundance and nucleid content classes were calculated using the Paint-A-Gate software (Becton Dickinson). Abundance data were converted into C biomass using 250 fgC cell-1 (Kana & Glibert 1987) for Synechococcus, 50 fgC cell-1 (Campbell et al. 1994) for Prochlorococcus and 20fgC cell-1 (Lee & Fuhrman 1987) for heterotrophic bacteria. Heterotrophic Nanoflagellate biomass: Subsamples (30-150 ml) were concentrated on 25mm black polycarbonate filters of porosity 0.6µm and stained with DAPI for 10 min (Porter and Feig 1980). Under epifluorescence microscopy heterotrophic nanoflagellates (HNAN) were distinguished using UV and blue excitation and enumerated. Nanoflagellates were classified in size categories and the biovolume was calculated. Abundance data were converted into C biomass using 183 fgC µm**3 (Caron et al. 1995). Ciliate biomass: For ciliate identification and enumeration, 100-3000 ml samples were left for 24h-4d for sedimentation and then observed under an inverted microscope. Ciliates were counted, distinguished into size-classes and major taxonomic groups and identified down to genus or species level where possible (Pitta et al. 2005). Ciliate cell sizes were measured and converted into cell volumes using appropriate geometric formulae using image analysis. For biomass estimation, the conversion factor 190 fgC µm**3 was used (Putt and Stoecker 1989).

Mejora del valor proteico para rumiantes de la harina de girasol mediante tratamientos combinados con ácidos (málico y fosfórico) y calor = Improvement of the protein value for ruminants of sunflower meal by combined treatments with acids (malic and orthophosphoric) and heat

El objetivo principal de esta tesis fue incrementar el valor proteico para rumiantes de la harina de girasol mediante tratamientos combinados con ácidos y calor para proteger sus proteínas frente a la degradación ruminal. Estos estudios comprenden dos experimentos realizados sobre ovinos mediante tecnologías in vitro (experimento 1) o in situ e in vivo (experimento 2), empleando siempre dos ácidos: málico u ortofosfórico. Aprovechando este último experimento, también se consideraron otros objetivos de carácter metodológico con el fin de mejorar la precisión de las estimas de i) la degradabilidad ruminal y la digestibilidad intestinal de la proteína y los aminoácidos (AAs) de los alimentos y ii) la síntesis microbiana ruminal y su contribución al flujo post-ruminal de nutrientes al animal. En el experimento 1 (capítulo 2) se efectuaron cuatro ensayos in vitro para estudiar la influencia de distintos factores que puedan afectar la eficacia de estos tratamientos. En cada ensayo se utilizó una réplica por tratamiento (dos para el tratamiento control) y dos bolsas vacías (empleadas para corregir la contaminación microbiana) en cada una de las cuatro botellas del incubador (ANKOM Daisy II). Cada botella contenía 2 l de medio de incubación, saturado con CO2 para asegurar la anaerobiosis. Este medio consistió en una mezcla de solución McDougall y liquido ruminal filtrado en relación 4:1. El liquido ruminal fue obtenido de 2 corderos canulados en rumen, utilizándose bien solo o mezclado con el del otro cordero en una relación 3:1. Así, cada botella de incubación contenía un inoculo ruminal diferente. Las incubaciones se realizaron a 39 ºC durante 20 h, siendo las bolsas lavadas con agua corriente y almacenadas a -20 ºC. Tras ser descongeladas, se lavaron 3 veces durante 5 min en una mini-lavadora de turbina, se desecaron a 80 ºC durante 48 h y se destinaron íntegras al análisis de N-Kjeldahl. En el ensayo 1 se estudió el efecto del volumen de disolución de dos dosis de ácido ortofosfórico (0,4 y 1,2 equivalentes gramo (eq)/kg de harina de girasol), testando cinco volúmenes de disolución (80, 160, 240, 320 and 400 ml/kg de harina) para cada dosis, desecándose las harinas a 60 ºC hasta sequedad al tacto. La proteína bruta (PB) indegradada se incremento con la dosis de ácido empleada y también (como tendencia, P < 0,1) con el volumen de dilución. En base a ello en los siguientes ensayos se utilizo el volumen de dilución mayor (400 ml/kg). En el ensayo 2 se estudió el efecto de la dosis y del tipo de ácido a cuatro dosis (1,2; 2,4; 3,6 y 4,8 eq/kg), secándose igualmente las muestras tratadas a 60 ºC. La PB indegradada aumentó con la dosis de ácido, siendo también mayor para el ácido málico, tanto en este ensayo como en los posteriores. En el ensayo 3 se estudiaron los efectos de los dos ácidos, cuatro concentraciones (0,6; 1,2; 1,8 y 2,4 eq/kg) y tres tratamientos térmicos para el secado de las muestras (100, 150 and 200 ºC durante 60, 30 y 20 minutos, respectivamente). Con los tratamientos térmicos a 100 y 150 ºC no hubo un incremento de protección para concentraciones superiores a 0,8 eq/kg para ambos ácidos. Para incrementar la protección fue necesario aumentar la temperatura a 200 ºC y la dosis a 1,2 eq/kg, no observándose un aumento de protección a dosis mayores. En el ensayo 4 se estudiaron los efectos sobre la lisina disponible, la solubilidad de la PB en saliva artificial de McDougall y la PB indegradada in vitro de tratar la harina solo con agua o con disoluciones de ambos ácidos a dosis de 0,8 eq/kg y temperaturas de secado de 100 ó 150 ºC en las mismas condiciones que en el ensayo 3. No se apreciaron efectos sobre la lisina disponible para ninguno de los tratamientos. El efecto específico de los ácidos quedo demostrado tanto por la fuerte reducción de la solubilidad de la PB como por el aumento de la PB indegradada frente al tratamiento con agua. En conjunto, los resultados de este experimento mostraron que la eficacia de estos tratamientos depende del tipo y dosis de ácido y de su dilución, así como de las condiciones de secado. Como tratamiento de mayor interés a aplicar posteriormente en el experimento 2 se consideró una dosis de 0,8 eq/kg de harina, aplicada en un volumen de 400 ml/kg (correspondiente a soluciones 1 M y 0,67 M para los ácidos málico y ortofosfórico, respectivamente) y desecación a 150 ºC. El experimento 2 (capítulos 3 a 7) se realizó con un diseño en cuadrado latino 3x3, empleando tres corderos canulados en rumen y duodeno y tres dietas isoproteicas: U, M y P, que incluían harinas de girasol sin tratar (control) y tratadas con acido málico u ortofosfórico, respectivamente. La harina de girasol se trató en las condiciones ya indicadas siendo necesarias 6 horas para su secado en estufa. Las dietas incluían 40% de heno de raigrás italiano y 60% de concentrado a base de harina de girasol (tratada y/o sin tratar), trigo y corrector vitamínico-mineral, siendo suministradas a 75 g/kg P0.75 (equivalente a 2,3 × mantenimiento). La relación harina de girasol sin tratar y tratada fue de 100:0 en la dieta U y entorno a 40:60 en las dietas M y P. Tras 10 días de adaptación a la dieta, se estudiaron sucesivamente: i) el tránsito hasta el duodeno de las partículas del heno (solo en la dieta control) y de la harina de girasol marcadas previamente con europio e iterbio, respectivamente; ii) la fermentación ruminal durante el periodo postprandial, iii) la degradación ruminal in situ de la harina de girasol específica de cada dieta (y del trigo y el heno en la dieta control) y iv) la magnitud y composición del contenido ruminal mediante el vaciado manual del rumen-retículo. Durante todo el periodo experimental se infundio de forma continua una solución de sulfato amónico enriquecido en 15N (98 átomos %) para corregir la contaminación microbiana ruminal en los estudios in situ y para establecer las diferencias de composición química entre las bacterias libres (BAL) y adherentes (BAS) del rumen. Esta solución incluyó en los dos últimos días Li-Cr- EDTA para determinar la tasa de dilución ruminal. Posteriormente, y tras un periodo de al menos 10 días para eliminar el enriquecimiento en 15N de la digesta, se estudió la digestibilidad intestinal de los distintos alimentos mediante la técnica de bolsas móviles. La determinación del bypass (BP) o de la degradabilidad efectiva (DE) de la materia seca (MS) y de la PB se realizó por el método tradicional de integración matemática; estos valores se obtuvieron también para la PB y los AAs generando una muestra representativa del flujo post-ruminal del alimento en estudio en cada animal. Ello se realizó mediante la mezcla de los distintos residuos de incubación en base a la función que describe el flujo de alimento indegradado que abandona el rumen. Todos estos trabajos se realizaron considerando la tasa de salida de partículas del rumen (kp) y, según casos, considerando también la tasa de conminución y mezcla de las partículas en este compartimento (kc). Para este último caso se ha desarrollado también el modelo matemático que describe este flujo y permite este cálculo. Los valores no corregidos por la contaminación microbiana del BP (o de DE) de la PB resultantes de ambos métodos se han comparado tanto en las harinas de girasol como en los restantes alimentos de la dieta, obteniéndose valores similares, sin apreciarse desviaciones sistemáticas. Sobre las muestras compuestas representativas de la composición química del BP se determino la digestibilidad intestinal efectiva (DIE) de la MS, PB y AAs. Todos los valores resultantes de esta técnica fueron corregidos para la contaminación microbiana de las partículas que tiene lugar en el rumen. Los estudios de transito digestivo se realizaron tras suministrar en el comedero a los corderos una dosis simple de los alimentos marcados, seguida de la toma de muestras de la digesta duodenal durante 82 h. En la dieta testigo se suministraron simultáneamente el heno de raigrás y la harina de girasol, mientras que en las otras dietas solo se suministró esta última. La harina de girasol mostro un mayor valor para kc frente al heno (0,5766 v. 0,0892, /h), mientras que no hubo diferencias entre los dos alimentos para kp (0,0623 v. 0,0609, /h). Para la harina de girasol no se apreciaron diferencias entre dietas para kc, pero si se redujo de manera moderada la tasa kp con los tratamientos, siendo ésta también menor al utilizar ácido ortofosfórico frente al uso de ácido malico (0,0577 v. 0,0600, /h). El empleo de las harinas tratadas no modifico los parámetros de fermentación ruminal, la composición de los contenidos ruminales o la tasa de dilución del rumen. Los valores efectivos del BP y de DIE de la MS, PB y AAs de las harinas de girasol se obtuvieron considerando kc y kp, conjuntamente. Los tratamientos de protección incrementaron el BP de MS y PB en 48,5 y 268% de media, respectivamente. Estos incrementos se debieron principalmente al descenso de la fracción soluble y de la velocidad de degradación, pero también al aumento de la fracción indegradable, especialmente usando ácido ortofosfórico. Con los tratamientos se incrementó también la DIE de la MS (108% de media) y de la PB con gran diferencia entre los ácidos málico y ortofosfórico (20,7 v. 11,8%). Como consecuencia de estos cambios la protección aumentó la fracción realmente digerida en el intestino en 211% (MS) y 325% (PB), sin efectos entre ambos ácidos. Considerando la reducción del suministro de energía fermentable para los microorganismos ruminales asociada a la protección y los parámetros indicados por el sistema PDI francés para la síntesis de proteína microbiana digestible, la eficacia de conversión de PB en proteína metabolizable aumentó de 0,244 a 0,559 y 0,515 con el tratamiento con acido málico y ortofosfórico, respectivamente. El contenido en aminoácidos (AAs) fue similar en todas las harinas salvo por una disminución de lisina en las harinas tratadas. De forma análoga a la PB, los tratamientos de protección incrementaron el BP y la DIE de la mayoría de AAs. El aporte de AAs metabolizabes de la harina se multiplico en 3,87 para los AAs azufrados y en menor medida (2,5 veces) para la lisina, como consecuencia de las pérdidas sufridas a consecuencia del tratamiento térmico. Estos tratamientos se muestran, por tanto, útiles para incrementar el valor proteico de la harina de girasol, si bien su empleo junto con concentrados proteicos ricos en lisina bypass digestible mejoraría el perfil de la proteína metabolizable. La corrección de la contaminación microbiana de las partículas que tiene lugar en el rumen se asoció en todos los alimentos testados y, de forma general, con reducciones del BP y de su DIE en todas las fracciones estudiadas. Estas reducciones fueron pequeñas en todos los concentrados, de forma acorde con los muy pequeños niveles de contaminación registrados tanto en las harinas de girasol como en el grano de trigo. Por el contrario, esta contaminación, al igual que los efectos de su corrección, fueron muy importantes en el heno de raigrás. Esta contaminación aumentó al tener en cuenta kc. Así, para la proporción de PB de origen microbiano existente en las muestras compuestas representativas del BP, este aumento fue significativo para el heno de raigrás (0,463 v. 0,706) y solo numérico para la harina de girasol (0,0170 v. 0,0208). La reducción de las estimas de DIE al corregir esta contaminación fue consecuencia de la eliminación de forma casi completa de los microorganismos adherentes en todos los residuos testados. Así, esta biomasa se redujo en 96,1% como media de 7x3 observaciones. Como resultado de las diferencias acumulativas a nivel del rumen e intestino, la no corrección de la contaminación microbiana junto con la no consideración de kc condujo a fuertes sobrestimaciones de la PB digerida en el intestino. Ésta fue de 39% en la harina de girasol (0,146 v. 0,105) y de 761% en el heno de raigrás (0,373 v. 0,0433). Estos resultados muestran que es necesario considerar tanto kc como corregir la contaminación microbiana para obtener estimas in situ precisas en forrajes, mientras que en concentrados, siempre que la contaminación microbiana sea pequeña, es más importante considerar kc. La elevada contaminación microbiana observada en el heno de raigrás se asoció también con importantes errores a nivel del N asociado a la fibra neutro (FND) y ácido (FAD) detergente (NDIN y ADIN, respectivamente) e incluso de estas fracciones de fibra, evidenciándose que estos métodos no eliminan completamente la contaminación microbiana que sufren los alimentos en su paso por el retículorumen. Así, en la muestra compuesta representativa de la composición química del flujo postruminal antes descrita, la sobrevaloración por no corregir la contaminación microbiana fue de 99,8; 24,2; 3,34 y 0,48% para NDIN, ADIN, FND y FAD, respectivamente. Las subvaloraciones asociadas para su DE fueron 34,1; 8,79; 4,41 y 0,51%, respectivamente. La DE corregida del NDIN y ADIN (0,743 y 0,728, respectivamente) mostró un aprovechamiento ruminal elevado de estos compuestos, si bien menor al de la PB total (0,85). El estudio de este aprovechamiento sobre los residuos de incubación ruminal a 6 y 72 h demostró, además, una más rápida degradación del ADIN frente al NDIN, así como un mayor potencial de degradación de este último en este alimento. Para comprobar si la digestión en el abomaso eliminaba la contaminación microbiana en la FND y FAD se estudio esta contaminación y sus posibles errores en muestras liofilizadas de contenidos ruminales y duodenales correspondientes a una dieta mixta de similar composición a la utilizada en el experimento 2, comparándose, además, las diferencias entre la extracción secuencial o directa de la FAD. Utilizando como referencia las BAS se apreciaron elevadas contaminaciones en la FND y FAD y su N asociado tanto en las muestras ruminales como en las duodenales. Sin embargo, los resultados de enriquecimiento en 15N de las partículas fueron intermedios entre los correspondientes a BAS y BAL lo que evidencia una elevada contaminación con BAL en estas muestras probablemente durante el proceso de liofilización. Ello conlleva una sobrevaloración de esta estimación. El método de extracción directa de FAD se mostró, por otra parte, marcadamente menos eficaz en la eliminación de la contaminación microbiana. Los resultados muestran la necesidad de corregir la contaminación microbiana para obtener estimaciones precisas de la degradabilidad de las proteínas de las paredes celulares vegetales. Estos errores deberían ser también considerados para FND y FAD en estudios in situ e in vivo. La elevada tasa fraccional de degradación del grano de trigo (60,9 y 42,0%/h para MS y PB, respectivamente) implico que su flujo de material indegradado (calculado solo en base a la kp obtenida para la harina de girasol) se redujera muy rápidamente, de forma que es casi nulo a 8 h tras la ingestión. Los valores corregidos de PB digerida en el intestino (0,15) representan solo el 18,7% de la proteína metabolizable, lo que muestra que el valor proteico del grano de trigo está estrechamente ligado a la síntesis de proteína microbiana derivada de su fermentación. En el experimento 2 se observaron menores concentraciones para materia orgánica, lípidos y PB, así como en la proporción N-AAs/N total en BAL que en BAS, siendo, por el contrario, mayor su enriquecimiento en 15N. Estos últimos resultados se utilizaron (junto con los de otros trabajos previos de este equipo) para validar una predicción preexistente del enriquecimiento en 15N de las BAS a partir de este valor en las BAL. Esta ecuación, de muy alta precisión (R2 = 0.995), permite calcular la subvaloración que se comete en los aportes de nutrientes correspondientes a las BAS al usar las BAL como muestra de referencia. Esta subvaloración representa aproximadamente 21, 32,5 y 60% para PB, proteína verdadera y lípidos.

Compatibilidad de Eretmocerus mundus Mercet (Hymenoptera: Aphelinidae) y Amblyseius swirskii Athias-Henriot (Acari: Phytoseiidae), importantes enemigos naturales de la mosca blanca Bemisia tabaci (Gennadius) (Hemiptera: Aleyrodidae) en cultivos hortícolas, con nuevas barreras físicas selectivas y modernos plaguicidas

Los programas de Gestión Integrada de Plagas (GIP) promueven el uso de estrategias de control que sean respetuosas con el medio ambiente, sin embargo el uso de insecticidas en los cultivos hortícolas sigue siendo necesario para el control de determinadas plagas, como es el caso de la mosca blanca Bemisia tabaci (Gennadius). Por ello, el objetivo de esta tesis es el estudio de la integración de las tres estrategias de control más empleadas hoy en día para el control de plagas: el control biológico, el físico y el químico. Una primera parte de este trabajo ha consistido en el estudio de los efectos letales y subletales de once insecticidas, aplicados a la dosis máxima de campo, sobre los enemigos naturales Eretmocerus mundus Mercet y Amblyseius swirskii Athias-Henriot, mediante ensayos de laboratorio y persistencia (laboratorio extendido). Para la evaluación de la toxicidad de los insecticidas sobre los estados de vida más protegidos de estos enemigos naturales, se trataron bajo la Torre de Potter las pupas de E. mundus y los huevos de A. swirskii. Además, se llevaron a cabo ensayos de contacto residual para determinar los efectos letales y subletales de estos insecticidas sobre el estado adulto de ambas especies de enemigos naturales. Para ello, los pesticidas se aplicaron sobre placas de cristal (laboratorio) o sobre plantas (laboratorio extendido: persistencia). Los resultados mostraron que los insecticidas flonicamida, flubendiamida, metaflumizona, metoxifenocida, spiromesifen y spirotetramat eran compatibles con el estado de pupa de E. mundus (OILB 1: Inocuos). Sin embargo, abamectina, deltametrina y emamectina fueron categorizadas como ligeramente tóxicas (OILB 2) al causar efectos deletéreos. Los dos pesticidas más tóxicos fueron spinosad y sulfoxaflor, los cuales redujeron significativamente la emergencia de las pupas tratadas (OILB 4: Tóxicos). Flonicamida, flubendiamida, metoxifenocida y spiromesifen fueron compatibles con el estado adulto de E. mundus (OILB 1: Inocuos). Abamectina, deltametrina, emamectina, metaflumizona y spiromesifen pueden ser recomendados para su uso en programas de GIP, si se usan los plazos de seguridad apropiados, de acuerdo con la persistencia de cada uno de estos insecticidas, antes de la liberación del enemigo natural. Al contrario, spinosad y sulfoxaflor no resultaron ser compatibles (OILB D: Persistentes), aunque la realización de ensayos adicionales es necesaria para ver los efectos de los mismos en campo. Todos los insecticidas estudiados, excepto el spirotetramat (OILB 2: Ligeramente tóxico), fueron selectivos para el estado de huevo de A. swirskii (OILB 1: Inocuos). Flonicamida, flubendiamida, metaflumizona, metoxifenocida, spiromesifen, spirotetramat y sulfoxaflor, fueron compatibles con el estado adulto de A. swirskii (OILB 1: Inocuos). Abamectina, deltametrina, emamectina y spinosad pueden ser recomendados para su uso en programas de GIP, si se usan los plazos de seguridad apropiados, de acuerdo con la persistencia de cada uno de estos insecticidas, antes de la liberación del enemigo natural. Entre las nuevas estrategias de la GIP, los plásticos y mallas fotoselectivas han demostrado ser una herramienta importante para el control de plagas y enfermedades en cultivos hortícolas protegidos. Por ello, en una segunda parte de este trabajo, se estudiaron tanto los efectos directos, como la combinación de efectos directos y mediados por planta y plaga de ambientes pobres en luz UV, en presencia o ausencia del Virus del rizado amarillo del tomate (TYLCV), sobre E. mundus. En primer lugar, se realizó un ensayo al aire libre para la evaluación de la capacidad de vuelo de E. mundus en cajas tipo túnel (1 x 0,6 x 0,6 m) cubiertas con distintas barreras absorbentes de luz UV. Se detectó un efecto directo en la capacidad de orientación de E. mundus, debido a que este parasitoide utiliza estímulos visuales para localizar a sus huéspedes, únicamente en las barreras que bloqueaban más del 65% de la luz UV (malla G). En segundo lugar, bajo condiciones de invernadero, se evaluó la combinación de efectos directos y mediados por planta y plaga sobre E. mundus, usando plantas de tomate sanas o infectadas con el TYLCV y cajas (30 x 30 x 60 cm) cubiertas con los distintos plásticos fotoselectivos. En este caso, no se observó ningún efecto en la capacidad benéfica del parasitoide cuando este estaba en contacto con plantas de tomate infestadas con ninfas de B. tabaci, lo que demuestra que este insecto usa estímulos táctiles para encontrar a sus huéspedes a cortas distancias. Además, las diferentes condiciones de radiación UV estudiadas tuvieron cierto impacto en la morfología, fisiología y bioquímica de las plantas de tomate, infestadas o no con el virus de la cuchara, detectándose pequeñas alteraciones en alguno de los parámetros estudiados, como el peso fresco y seco, el contenido en H y el espesor de las cutículas y de las paredes celulares de la epidermis foliar. Por último, no se observaron efectos de la radiación UV mediados por planta, ni en B. tabaci ni en su parasitoide, E. mundus. En una tercera parte, se evaluaron los efectos de una malla tratada con bifentrin sobre ambos enemigos naturales, en ensayos de laboratorio, semicampo y campo. Las mallas tratadas fueron diseñadas originariamente para el control de mosquitos vectores de la malaria, y actualmente se está trabajando para su uso en agricultura, como una nueva estrategia de control de plagas. En ensayos de laboratorio, cuando adultos de E. mundus y A. swirskii se expusieron por contacto durante 72 horas con la malla tratada (cajas de 6 cm diámetro), se registró una alta mortalidad. Sin embargo, en el ensayo de preferencia, estos enemigos naturales no fueron capaces de detectar la presencia de bifentrin y, en aquellos individuos forzados a atravesar la malla tratada, no se observó mortalidad a corto plazo (72 horas). En estudios de semicampo, llevados a cabo bajo condiciones de invernadero en cajas de 25 x 25 x 60 cm de altura, la capacidad benéfica de E. mundus no se vio afectada. Finalmente, en ensayos de campo llevados a cabo en invernaderos comerciales (4000m2) en Almería, A. swirskii no se vio afectado por la presencia en el cultivo de la malla tratada con bifentrin y los niveles de infestación de B. tabaci y F. occidentalis detectados bajo dicha malla, fueron inferiores a los del control. Por último, se ha evaluado la composición de la microflora bacteriana de tres especies de parasitoides, E. mundus, Eretmocerus eremicus Rose & Zolnerowich y Encarsia formosa Gahan, y la influencia de la misma en su susceptibilidad a insecticidas. Se llevó a cabo una extracción total de ADN de los insectos y la región variable V4 del ARNr se amplificó usando cebadores universales bacterianos. Para identificar las secuencias de los géneros bacterianos presentes en los parasitoides, se realizó una Next Generation sequencing (Illumina sequencing). Una vez identificados los géneros bacterianos, el gen ADNr 16S de las Actinobacterias se amplificó del ADN extraído de los insectos, usando cebadores universales bacterianos y específicos de Actinobacterias, y los productos de la Nested PCR fueron clonados para identificar todas las especies del género Arthrobacter. Tres bacterias (A. aurescens Phillips, A. nicotinovarans Kodama, Yamamoto, Amano and Amichi y A. uratoxydans Stackebrandt, Fowler, Fiedler and Seiler), próximas a las especies de Arthrobacter presentes en los parasitoides, se obtuvieron de la colección bacteriana del BCCMTM/LMG y se midió su actividad esterasa. Finalmente, se realizaron ensayos con antibióticos (tetraciclina) y de contacto residual con insecticidas (abamectina) para determinar la influencia de las especies de Arthrobacter en la susceptibilidad de E. mundus a insecticidas. Los resultados muestran que este género bacteriano puede afectar a la toxicidad de E. mundus a abamectina, mostrando la importancia de la comunidad microbiana en enemigos naturales, factor que debe ser considerado en los estudios de evaluación de los riesgos de los insecticidas. ABSTRACT Integrated Pest Management (IPM) programs promote the use of control strategies more respectful with the environment; however the use of insecticides in vegetable crops is still needed to control certain pests, such as the whitefly Bemisia tabaci (Gennadius). Therefore, the objective of this work is to study the integration of the three most commonly used pest control strategies nowadays: biological, physical and chemical control. Firstly, the lethal and sublethal effects of eleven insecticides, applied at their maximum field recommended concentration, on the parasitic wasp Eretmocerus mundus Mercet and the predator Amblyseius swirskii Athias-Henriot has been assessed in the laboratory and in persistence tests (extended laboratory). To test the effects of pesticides on the most protected life stage of these natural enemies, E. mundus pupae and A. swirskii eggs were sprayed under a Potter precision spray tower. Laboratory contact tests were therefore conducted to determine the lethal and sublethal effects of these pesticides on the adult stage of these natural enemies. In the residual contact tests the pesticides were applied on glass plates (laboratory) or plants (extended laboratory: persistence). The study showed that the insecticides flonicamid, flubendiamide, metaflumizone, methoxyfenozide, spiromesifen and spirotetramat were selective for E. mundus pupae (IOBC 1: Harmless). Nevertheless, abamectin, deltamethrin and emamectin were categorized as slightly harmful (IOBC 2) due to the deleterious effects caused. The two most harmful pesticides were spinosad and sulfoxaflor, which significantly reduced the adult emergence from treated pupae (IOBC 4: Harmful). Flonicamid, flubendiamide, methoxyfenozide and spiromesifen were compatible with E. mundus adults (IOBC 1: Harmless). Base on the duration of the harmful activity, abamectin, deltamethrin, emamectin, metaflumizone and spirotetramat could be recommended for use in IPM programs if appropriate safety deadlines are used before the natural enemy release. On the contrary, spinosad and sulfoxaflor were not compatible (IOBC D: persistent), although additional studies are required to determine their effects under field conditions. All the pesticides tested, except spirotetramat (IOBC 2: Slightly harmful), were selective for A. swirskii eggs (IOBC 1: Harmless). Flonicamid, flubendiamide, metaflumizone, methoxyfenozide, spiromesifen, spirotetramat and sulfoxaflor were compatible with A. swirskii adults (IOBC 1: Harmless). However, abamectin, deltamethrin, emamectin and spinosad could be recommended for use in IPM programs if appropriate safety deadlines are used before the natural enemy release. Among new IPM strategies, UV-absorbing photoselective plastic films and nets have been shown to be an important tool for the control of pests and diseases in horticultural protected crops. Because of that, we secondly studied the plant and pest insect-mediated and/or the direct effects on E. mundus under different UV radiation conditions, in presence or absence of the Tomato Yellow Leaf Curl Virus (TYLCV). In the first experiment, performed outdoors, the flight activity of E. mundus was studied in one-chamber tunnels (1 x 0.6 x 0.6 m) covered with different photoselective barriers. Because E. mundus uses visual cues for host location at a long distance, a direct effect on its host location ability was detected, but only in the UV-absorbing barriers blocking more than 65% of the UV light (G net). In a second experiment, the direct and plant and pest insect-mediated effects of different UV radiation conditions on E. mundus were studied, inside cages (30 x 30 x 60 cm) covered with the different UVplastic films and under greenhouse conditions, using healthy or TYLCV-virus infected tomato plants. In this case, not any effect on the beneficial capacity of this parasitoid was detected, proving that he uses tactile cues at a short distance of the host. Moreover, the different UV radiation conditions studied had a certain direct impact in the morphology, physiology and biochemistry of tomato plants infested or not with the TYLCV, and small alterations in some parameters such as fresh and dry weight, H percentage and cuticle and cell wall thickness of epidermal cells of the leaves, were detected. Finally, none plant-mediated UV effects neither in the whitefly B. tabaci nor in their parasitic wasp were found. Thirdly, the effects of a bifenthrin treated net were evaluated in different laboratory, semi-field and field experiments on the natural enemies studied. Treated nets were developed long time ago aiming at the control of the mosquitoes vectors of malaria, and nowadays, there is a great interest on assessing the possibility of their use in agriculture. In laboratory assays, a high mortality was recorded when E. mundus and A. swirskii adults were exposed by contact to the bifenthrin treated net for 72 hours in small cages (12 cm diameter). However, these natural enemies were not able to detect the presence of bifenthrin in a dual-choice test and no short-term mortality (72 hours) was recorded in those individuals that went through the treated net. In semi-field assays, performed under greenhouse conditions with cages of 25 x 25 x 60 cm high, the beneficial capacity of E. mundus was not affected. Finally, in field assays carried out in commercial multispan greenhouses (4000 m2) in Almería, A. swirskii was not affected by the presence of the bifenthrin treated net in the crop and the B. tabaci and F. occidentalis infestation levels were significantly lower than in the control. Finally, the composition of the microflora present in three species of parasitoids, E. mundus, Eretmocerus eremicus Rose & Zolnerowich and Encarsia formosa Gahan, and its influence in their susceptibility to insecticides, have been assessed. A total DNA extraction was performed on insects and universal bacterial primers were used to amplify the variable V4 region of the rRNA. A Next Generation sequencing (Illumina sequencing) was performed to identify the sequences of the bacterial genera present in the parasitic wasps. Once, the bacterial genera were identified, 16S rDNA gene of Actinobacteria were amplified from insects DNA extracts using the universal bacterial and actinobacterial primers, and the nested PCR products, were cloned to identify the Arthrobacter species. Three bacteria (A. aurescens Phillips, A. nicotinovarans Kodama, Yamamoto, Amano and Amichi and A. uratoxydans Stackebrandt, Fowler, Fiedler and Seiler), having the closest match with the Arthrobacter species present in the parasitic wasps, were obtained from the BCCMTM/LMG bacteria collection and its esterase activity was measured. Finally, antibiotic and residual contact tests were done to determine the influence of Arthrobacter species in the susceptibility of E. mundus to pesticides (abamectin). The results suggest that this bacterial genus can affect the toxicity of E. mundus to abamectin, which in turn supports the importance of the microbial community in natural enemies that it should be considered as a factor in risk assessment tests of pesticides.