An assessment of post-disaster psychological stress in hazardous waste operations and emergency response (HAZWOPER) workers

Personnel involved in natural or man-made disaster response and recovery efforts may be exposed to a wide variety of physical and mental stressors that can exhibit long-lasting and detrimental psychopathological outcomes. In a disaster situation, huge numbers of "secondary" responders can be involved in contaminant clean-up and debris removal and can be at risk of developing stress-related mental health outcomes. The Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) worker training hierarchy typically required for response workers, known as "Hazardous Waste Operations and Emergency Response" (HAZWOPER), does not address the mental health and safety concerns of workers. This study focused on the prevalence of traumatic stress experienced by secondary responders that had received or expressed interest in receiving HAZWOPER training through the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences Worker Education and Training Program (NIEHS WETP). ^ The study involved the modification of two preexisting and validated survey tools to assess secondary responder awareness of physical, mental, and traumatic stressors on mental health and sought to determine if a need existed to include traumatic stress-related mental health education in the current HAZWOPER training regimen. The study evaluated post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), resiliency, mental distress, and negative effects within a secondary responder population of 176 respondents. Elevated PTSD levels were seen in the study population as compared to a general responder population (32.9% positive vs. 8%-22.5% positive). Results indicated that HAZWOPER-trained disaster responders were likely to test positive for PTSD, whereas, untrained responders with no disaster experience and responders who possessed either training or disaster experience only were likely to test PTSD negative. A majority (68.75%) of the population tested below the mean resiliency to cope score (80.4) of the average worker population. Results indicated that those who were trained only or who possessed both training and disaster work experience were more likely to have lower resiliency scores than those with no training or experience. There were direct correlations between being PTSD positive and having worked at a disaster site and experiencing mental distress and negative effects. However, HAZWOPER training status does not significantly correlate with mental distress or negative effect. ^ The survey indicated clear support (91% of respondents) for mental health education. The development of a pre- and post-deployment training module is recommended. Such training could provide responders with the necessary knowledge and skills to recognize the symptomology of PTSD, mental stressors, and physical and traumatic stressors, thus empowering them to employ protective strategies or seek professional help if needed. It is further recommended that pre-deployment mental health education be included in the current HAZWOPER 24- and 40-hour course curriculums, as well as, consideration be given towards integrating a stand-alone post-deployment mental health education training course into the current HAZWOPER hierarchy.^

Use of a modified delphi process for establishing occupational exposure limits in support of health surveillance for space travelers

On-orbit exposures can come from numerous factors related to the space environment as evidenced by almost 50 years of environmental samples collected for water analysis, air analysis, radiation analysis, and physiologic parameters. For astronauts and spaceflight participants the occupational exposures can be very different from those experienced by workers performing similar tasks in workplaces on Earth, because the duration of the exposure could be continuous for very long orbital, and eventually interplanetary, missions. The establishment of long-term exposure standards is vital to controlling the quality of the spacecraft environment over long periods. NASA often needs to update and revise its prior exposure standards (Spacecrafts Maximum Allowable Concentrations (SMACs)). Traditional standards-setting processes are often lengthy, so a more rapid method to review and establish standards would be a substantial advancement in this area. This project investigates use of the Delphi method for this purpose. ^ In order to achieve the objectives of this study a modified Delphi methodology was tested in three trials executed by doctoral students and a panel of experts in disciplines related to occupational safety and health. During each test/trial modifications were made to the methodology. Prior to submission of the Delphi Questionnaire to the panel of experts a pilot study/trial was conducted using five doctoral students with the goals of testing and adjusting the Delphi questionnaire to improve comprehension, work out any procedural issues and evaluate the effectiveness of the questionnaire in drawing the desired responses. The remainder of the study consisted of two trials of the Modified Delphi process using 6 chemicals that currently have the potential of causing occupational exposures to NASA astronauts or spaceflight participants. To assist in setting Occupational Exposure Limits (OEL), the expert panel was established consisting of experts from academia, government and industry. Evidence was collected and used to create close-ended questionnaires which were submitted to the Delphi panel of experts for the establishment of OEL values for three chemicals from the list of six originally selected (trial 1). Once the first Delphi trial was completed, adjustments were made to the Delphi questionnaires and the process above was repeated with the remaining 3 chemicals (trial 2). ^ Results indicate that experience in occupational safety and health and with OEL methodologies can have a positive effect in minimizing the time experts take in completing this process. Based on the results of the questionnaires and comparison of the results with the SMAC already established by NASA, we conclude that use of the Delphi methodology is appropriate for use in the decision-making process for the selection of OELs.^

Hexachlorocyclohexanes concentration in air and ocean water

Hexachlorocyclohexanes (HCHs) are ubiquitous organic pollutants derived from pesticide application. They are subject to long-range transport, persistent in the environment, and capable of accumulation in biota. Shipboard measurements of HCH isomers (a-, b- and g-HCH) in surface seawater and boundary layer atmospheric samples were conducted in the Atlantic and the Southern Ocean in October to December of 2008. SumHCHs concentrations (the sum of a-, g- and b-HCH) in the lower atmosphere ranged from 12 to 37 pg/m**3 (mean: 27 �� 11 pg/m**3) in the Northern Hemisphere (NH), and from 1.5 to 4.0 pg/m**3 (mean: 2.8 �� 1.1 pg/m**3) in the Southern Hemisphere (SH), respectively. Water concentrations were: a-HCH 0.33-47 pg/l, g-HCH 0.02-33 pg/l and b-HCH 0.11-9.5 pg/l. Dissolved HCH concentrations decreased from the North Atlantic to the Southern Ocean, indicating historical use of HCHs in the NH. Spatial distribution showed increasing concentrations from the equator towards North and South latitudes illustrating the concept of cold trapping in high latitudes and less interhemispheric mixing process. In comparison to concentrations measured in 1987-1999/2000, gaseous HCHs were slightly lower, while dissolved HCHs decreased by factor of 2-3 orders of magnitude. Air-water exchange gradients suggested net deposition for a-HCH (mean: 3800 pg/m**2/day) and g-HCH (mean: 2000 pg/m**2/day), whereas b-HCH varied between equilibrium (volatilization: <0-12 pg/m**2/day) and net deposition (range: 6-690 pg/m**2/day). Climate change may significantly accelerate the release of "old" HCHs from continental storage (e.g. soil, vegetation and high mountains) and drive long-range transport from sources to deposition in the open oceans. Biological productivities may interfere with the air-water exchange process as well. Consequently, further investigation is necessary to elucidate the long term trends and the biogeochemical turnover of HCHs in the oceanic environment.

Atmospheric concentrations of organic pollutants in the Arctic between 1993-2006

Continuous and comparable atmospheric monitoring programs to study the transport and occurrence of persistent organic pollutants (POPs) in the atmosphere of remote regions is essential to better understand the global movement of these chemicals and to evaluate the effectiveness of international control measures. Key results from four main Arctic research stations, Alert (Canada), Pallas (Finland), Storhofdi (Iceland) and Zeppelin (Svalbard/Norway), where long-term monitoring have been carried out since the early 1990s, are summarized. We have also included a discussion of main results from various Arctic satellite stations in Canada, Russia, US (Alaska) and Greenland which have been operational for shorter time periods. Using the Digital Filtration temporal trend development technique, it was found that while some POPs showed more or less consistent declines during the 1990s, this reduction is less apparent in recent years at some sites. In contrast, polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) were still found to be increasing by 2005 at Alert with doubling times of 3.5 years in the case of deca-BDE. Levels and patterns of most POPs in Arctic air are also showing spatial variability, which is typically explained by differences in proximity to suspected key source regions and long-range atmospheric transport potentials. Furthermore, increase in worldwide usage of certain pesticides, e.g. chlorothalonil and quintozene, which are contaminated with hexachlorobenzene (HCB), may result in an increase in Arctic air concentration of HCB. The results combined also indicate that both temporal and spatial patterns of POPs in Arctic air may be affected by various processes driven by climate change, such as reduced ice cover, increasing seawater temperatures and an increase in biomass burning in boreal regions as exemplified by the data from the Zeppelin and Alert stations. Further research and continued air monitoring are needed to better understand these processes and its future impact on the Arctic environment.

Underway measurements of halocarbons (air) during POSEIDON cruise POS399 in June 2010

During the DRIVE (Diurnal and Regional Variability of Halogen Emissions) ship campaign we investigated the variability of the halogenated very short-lived substances (VSLS) bromoform (CHBr3), dibromomethane (CH2Br2) and methyl iodide (CH3I) in the marine atmospheric boundary layer in the eastern tropical and subtropical North Atlantic Ocean during May/June 2010. The highest VSLS mixing ratios were found near the Mauritanian coast and close to Lisbon (Portugal). With backward trajectories we identified predominantly air masses from the open North Atlantic with some coastal influence in the Mauritanian upwelling area, due to the prevailing NW winds. The maximum VSLS mixing ratios above the Mauritanian upwelling were 8.92 ppt for bromoform, 3.14 ppt for dibromomethane and 3.29 ppt for methyl iodide, with an observed maximum range of the daily mean up to 50% for bromoform, 26% for dibromomethane and 56% for methyl iodide. The influence of various meteorological parameters - such as wind, surface air pressure, surface air and surface water temperature, humidity and marine atmospheric boundary layer (MABL) height - on VSLS concentrations and fluxes was investigated. The strongest relationship was found between the MABL height and bromoform, dibromomethane and methyl iodide abundances. Lowest MABL heights above the Mauritanian upwelling area coincide with highest VSLS mixing ratios and vice versa above the open ocean. Significant high anti-correlations confirm this relationship for the whole cruise. We conclude that especially above oceanic upwelling systems, in addition to sea-air fluxes, MABL height variations can influence atmospheric VSLS mixing ratios, occasionally leading to elevated atmospheric abundances. This may add to the postulated missing VSLS sources in the Mauritanian upwelling region (Quack et al., 2007).

Urban trees and atmospheric pollutants in big cities: Effects in Madrid

Una investigaci��n sobre la mejora de la contaminaci��n del aire (CA) por medio de arbolado urbano se realiz�� en Madrid, una ciudad con casi 4 M de habitantes, 2,8 M de veh��culos y casi 3 M de ��rboles de mantenimiento p��blico. La mayor��a de los ��rboles estaban en dos bosques periurbanos. Los 650.000 restantes era pies de alineaci��n y parques. Los taxones estudiados fueron Platanus orientalis (97.205 ��rboles), Ulmus sp. (70.557), Pinus pinea (49.038), Aesculus hippocastanum (22.266), Cedrus sp. (13.678) y Quercus ilex (1.650), de calles y parques. Muestras foliares se analizaron en diferentes ��pocas del a��o, as�� como datos de contaminaci��n por PM10 de 28 estaciones de medici��n de la contaminaci��n durante 30 a��os, y tambi��n la intensidad del tr��fico (IMD) en 2.660 calles. La acumulaci��n de metales pesados (MP) sobre hojas y dentro de estas se estim�� en relaci��n con la CA y del suelo y la IMD del tr��fico. La concentraci��n media de Ba, Cd, Cr, Cu, Mn, Ni, Pb y Zn en suelo (materia seca) alcanz��: 489,5, 0,7, 49,4, 60,9, 460,9, 12,8, 155,9 y 190,3 mg kg-1 respectivamente. Los ��rboles urbanos, particularmente con��feras (debido a la mayor CA en invierno) contribuyen significativamente a mejorar la CA sobre todo en calles con alta IMD. La capacidad de las seis sp. para capturar part��culas de polvo en su superficies foliares est�� relacionada con la IMD del tr��fico y se estim�� en 16,8 kg/a��o de MP t��xicos. Pb y Zn resultaron ser buenos marcadores antr��picos en la ciudad en relaci��n con el tr��fico, que fue la principal fuente de contaminaci��n en los ��rboles y suelos de Madrid. Las especies de ��rboles variaron en funci��n de su capacidad para capturar part��culas (dependiendo de las propiedades de sus superficies foliares) y acumular los MP absorbidos de los suelos. Las concentraciones foliares de Pb y Zn estuvieron por encima de los l��mites establecidos en diferentes sitios de la ciudad. La microlocalizaci��n de Zn mediante microsc��pico mostr�� la translocaci��n al xilema y floema. Se detectaron puntos de contaminaci��n puntual de Cu and Cr en antiguos pol��gonos industriales y la distribuci��n espacial de los MP en los suelos de Madrid mostr�� que en incluso en zonas interiores del El Retiro hab��a ciertos niveles elevados de [Pb] en suelo, tal vez por el emplazamiento la Real F��brica de Porcelana en la misma zona hace 200 a��os. Distintas ��reas del centro de la ciudad tambi��n alcanzaron niveles altos de [Pb] en suelo. Seg��n los resultados, el empleo de una combinaci��n de Pinus pinea con un estrato intermedio de Ulmus sp. y Cedrus sp. puede ser la mejor recomendaci��n como filtro verde eficiente. El efecto del ozono (O3) sobre el arbolado en Madrid fue tambi��n objeto de este estudio. A pesar de la reducci��n de precursores aplicada en muchos pa��ses industrializados, O3 sigue siendo la principal causa de CA en el hemisferio norte, con el aumento de [O3] de fondo. Las mayores [O3] se alcanzaron en regiones mediterr��neas, donde el efecto sobre la vegetaci��n natural es compensado por el xeromorfismo y la baja conductancia estom��tica en respuesta los episodios de sequ��a estival caracter��sticos de este clima. Durante una campa��a de monitoreo, se identificaron da��os abi��ticos en hojas de encina parecidos a los de O3 que estaban plantadas en una franja de c��sped con riego del centro de Madrid. Dada la poca evidencia disponible de los s��ntomas de O3 en frondosas perennifolias, se hizo un estudio que trat�� de 1) confirman el diagn��stico de da��o de O3, 2) investigar el grado de los s��ntomas en encinas y 3) analizar los factores ambientales que contribuyeron a los da��os por O3, en particular en lo relacionado con el riego. Se analizaron los marcadores macro y micromorfol��gicos de estr��s por O3, utilizando las mencionadas encinas a modo de parcela experimental. Los s��ntomas consistieron en punteado intercostal del haz, que aument�� con la edad. Adem��s de un punteado subyacente, donde las c��lulas superiores del mes��filo mostraron reacciones caracter��sticas de da��os por O3. Las c��lulas pr��ximas a las zonas da��adas, presentaron marcadores adicionales de estr��s oxidativo. Estos marcadores morfol��gicos y micromorfol��gicos de estr��s por O3 fueron similares a otras frondosas caducifolias con da��os por O3. Sin embargo, en nuestro caso el punteado fue evidente con AOT40 de 21 ppm���h, asociada a riego. An��lisis posteriores mostraron que los ��rboles con riego aumentaron su conductancia estom��tica, con aumento de senescencia, manteni��ndose sin cambios sus caracter��sticas xerom��rficas foliares. Estos hallazgos ponen de relieve el papel primordial de la disponibilidad de agua frente a las caracter��sticas xerom��rficas a la hora de manifestarse los s��ntomas en las c��lulas por da��os de O3 en encina. ABSTRACT Research about air pollution mitigation by urban trees was conducted in Madrid (Spain), a southern European city with almost 4 M inhabitants, 2.8 M daily vehicles and 3 M trees under public maintenance. Most trees were located in two urban forests, while 650'000 trees along urban streets and in parks. The urban taxa included Platanus orientalis (97'205 trees), Ulmus sp. (70���557), Pinus pinea (49'038), Aesculus hippocastanum (22���266), Cedrus sp. (13'678 and Quercus ilex (1'650) along streets and parks. Leave samples were analysed sequentially in different seasons, PM10 data from 28 air monitoring stations during 30 years and traffic density estimated from 2���660 streets. Heavy metal (HM) accumulation on the leaf surface and within leaves was estimated per tree related to air and soil pollution, and traffic intensity. Mean concentration of Ba, Cd, Cr, Cu, Mn, Ni, Pb and Zn in topsoil samples (dry mass) amounted in Madrid: 489.5, 0.7, 49.4, 60.9, 460.9, 12.8, 155.9 and 190.3 mg kg-1 respectively. Urban trees, particularly conifers (due to higher pollution in winter) contributed significantly to alleviate air pollution especially near to high ADT roads. The capacity of the six urban street trees species to capture air-born dust on the foliage surface as related to traffic intensity was estimated to 16.8 kg of noxious metals from exhausts per year. Pb and Zn pointed to be tracers of anthropic activity in the city with vehicle traffic as the main source of diffuse pollution on trees and soils. Tree species differed by their capacity to capture air-borne dust (by different leaf surface properties) and to allocate HM from soils. Pb and Zn concentrations in the foliage were above limits in different urban sites and microscopic Zn revelation showed translocation in xylem and phloem tissue. Punctual contamination in soils by Cu and Cr was identified in former industrial areas and spatial trace element mapping showed for central Retiro Park certain high values of [Pb] in soils even related to a Royal pottery 200 years ago. Different areas in the city centre also reached high levels [Pb] in soils. According to the results, a combination of Pinus pinea with understorey Ulmus sp. and Cedrus sp. layers can be recommended for the best air filter efficiency. The effects of ozone (O3) on trees in different areas of Madrid were also part of this study. Despite abatement programs of precursors implemented in many industrialized countries, ozone remained the main air pollutant throughout the northern hemisphere with background [O3] increasing. Some of the highest ozone concentrations were measured in regions with a Mediterranean climate but the effect on the natural vegetation is alleviated by low stomatal uptake and frequent leaf xeromorphy in response to summer drought episodes characteristic of this climate. During a bioindication survey, abiotic O3-like injury was identified in foliage. Trees were growing on an irrigated lawn strip in the centre of Madrid. Given the little structural evidence available for O3 symptoms in broadleaved evergreen species, a study was undertaken in 2007 with the following objectives 1) confirm the diagnosis, 2) investigate the extent of symptoms in holm oaks growing in Madrid and 3) analyse the environmental factors contributing to O3 injury, particularly, the site water supply. Therefore, macro- and micromorphological markers of O3 stress were analysed, using the aforementioned lawn strip as an intensive study site. Symptoms consisted of adaxial and intercostal stippling increasing with leaf age. Underlying stippling, cells in the upper mesophyll showed HR-like reactions typical of ozone stress. The surrounding cells showed further oxidative stress markers. These morphological and micromorphological markers of ozone stress were similar to those recorded in deciduous broadleaved species. However, stippling became obvious already at an AOT40 of 21 ppm���h and was primarily found at irrigated sites. Subsequent analyses showed that irrigated trees had their stomatal conductance increased and leaf life-span reduced whereas their leaf xeromorphy remained unchanged. These findings suggest a central role of water availability versus leaf xeromorphy for ozone symptom expression by cell injury in holm oak.

Development and implementation of an air quality integrated assessment modelling system for the Iberian Peninsula

La mejora de la calidad del aire es una tarea eminentemente interdisciplinaria. Dada la gran variedad de ciencias y partes involucradas, dicha mejora requiere de herramientas de evaluaci��n simples y completamente integradas. La modelizaci��n para la evaluaci��n integrada (integrated assessment modeling) ha demostrado ser una soluci��n adecuada para la descripci��n de los sistemas de contaminaci��n atmosf��rica puesto que considera cada una de las etapas involucradas: emisiones, qu��mica y dispersi��n atmosf��rica, impactos ambientales asociados y potencial de disminuci��n. Varios modelos de evaluaci��n integrada ya est��n disponibles a escala continental, cubriendo cada una de las etapas antesmencionadas, siendo el modelo GAINS (Greenhouse Gas and Air Pollution Interactions and Synergies) el m��s reconocido y usado en el contexto europeo de toma de decisiones medioambientales. Sin embargo, el manejo de la calidad del aire a escala nacional/regional dentro del marco de la evaluaci��n integrada es deseable. Esto sin embargo, no se lleva a cabo de manera satisfactoria con modelos a escala europea debido a la falta de resoluci��n espacial o de detalle en los datos auxiliares, principalmente los inventarios de emisi��n y los patrones meteorol��gicos, entre otros. El objetivo de esta tesis es presentar los desarrollos en el dise��o y aplicaci��n de un modelo de evaluaci��n integrada especialmente concebido para Espa��a y Portugal. El modelo AERIS (Atmospheric Evaluation and Research Integrated system for Spain) es capaz de cuantificar perfiles de concentraci��n para varios contaminantes (NO2, SO2, PM10, PM2,5, NH3 y O3), el dep��sito atmosf��rico de especies de azufre y nitr��geno as�� como sus impactos en cultivos, vegetaci��n, ecosistemas y salud como respuesta a cambios porcentuales en las emisiones de sectores relevantes. La versi��n actual de AERIS considera 20 sectores de emisi��n, ya sea equivalentes a sectores individuales SNAP o macrosectores, cuya contribuci��n a los niveles de calidad del aire, dep��sito e impactos han sido modelados a trav��s de matrices fuentereceptor (SRMs). Estas matrices son constantes de proporcionalidad que relacionan cambios en emisiones con diferentes indicadores de calidad del aire y han sido obtenidas a trav��s de parametrizaciones estad��sticas de un modelo de calidad del aire (AQM). Para el caso concreto de AERIS, su modelo de calidad del aire ���de origen��� consisti�� en el modelo WRF para la meteorolog��a y en el modelo CMAQ para los procesos qu��mico-atmosf��ricos. La cuantificaci��n del dep��sito atmosf��rico, de los impactos en ecosistemas, cultivos, vegetaci��n y salud humana se ha realizado siguiendo las metodolog��as est��ndar establecidas bajo los marcos internacionales de negociaci��n, tales como CLRTAP. La estructura de programaci��n est�� basada en MATLAB��, permitiendo gran compatibilidad con software t��pico de escritorio comoMicrosoft Excel�� o ArcGIS��. En relaci��n con los niveles de calidad del aire, AERIS es capaz de proveer datos de media anual y media mensual, as�� como el 19o valor horario m��s alto paraNO2, el 25o valor horario y el 4o valor diario m��s altos para SO2, el 36o valor diario m��s alto para PM10, el 26o valor octohorario m��s alto, SOMO35 y AOT40 para O3. En relaci��n al dep��sito atmosf��rico, el dep��sito acumulado anual por unidad de area de especies de nitr��geno oxidado y reducido al igual que de azufre pueden ser determinados. Cuando los valores anteriormente mencionados se relacionan con caracter��sticas del dominio modelado tales como uso de suelo, cubiertas vegetales y forestales, censos poblacionales o estudios epidemiol��gicos, un gran n��mero de impactos puede ser calculado. Centr��ndose en los impactos a ecosistemas y suelos, AERIS es capaz de estimar las superaciones de cargas cr��ticas y las superaciones medias acumuladas para especies de nitr��geno y azufre. Los da��os a bosques se calculan como una superaci��n de los niveles cr��ticos de NO2 y SO2 establecidos. Adem��s, AERIS es capaz de cuantificar da��os causados por O3 y SO2 en vid, ma��z, patata, arroz, girasol, tabaco, tomate, sand��a y trigo. Los impactos en salud humana han sido modelados como consecuencia de la exposici��n a PM2,5 y O3 y cuantificados como p��rdidas en la esperanza de vida estad��stica e indicadores de mortalidad prematura. La exactitud del modelo de evaluaci��n integrada ha sido contrastada estad��sticamente con los resultados obtenidos por el modelo de calidad del aire convencional, exhibiendo en la mayor��a de los casos un buen nivel de correspondencia. Debido a que la cuantificaci��n de los impactos no es llevada a cabo directamente por el modelo de calidad del aire, un an��lisis de credibilidad ha sido realizado mediante la comparaci��n de los resultados de AERIS con los de GAINS para un escenario de emisiones determinado. El an��lisis revel�� un buen nivel de correspondencia en las medias y en las distribuciones probabil��sticas de los conjuntos de datos. Las pruebas de verificaci��n que fueron aplicadas a AERIS sugieren que los resultados son suficientemente consistentes para ser considerados como razonables y realistas. En conclusi��n, la principal motivaci��n para la creaci��n del modelo fue el producir una herramienta confiable y a la vez simple para el soporte de las partes involucradas en la toma de decisiones, de cara a analizar diferentes escenarios ���y si��� con un bajo coste computacional. La interacci��n con pol��ticos y otros actores dict�� encontrar un compromiso entre la complejidad del modeladomedioambiental con el car��cter conciso de las pol��ticas, siendo esto algo que AERIS refleja en sus estructuras conceptual y computacional. Finalmente, cabe decir que AERIS ha sido creado para su uso exclusivo dentro de un marco de evaluaci��n y de ninguna manera debe ser considerado como un sustituto de los modelos de calidad del aire ordinarios. ABSTRACT Improving air quality is an eminently inter-disciplinary task. The wide variety of sciences and stakeholders that are involved call for having simple yet fully-integrated and reliable evaluation tools available. Integrated AssessmentModeling has proved to be a suitable solution for the description of air pollution systems due to the fact that it considers each of the involved stages: emissions, atmospheric chemistry, dispersion, environmental impacts and abatement potentials. Some integrated assessment models are available at European scale that cover each of the before mentioned stages, being the Greenhouse Gas and Air Pollution Interactions and Synergies (GAINS) model the most recognized and widely-used within a European policy-making context. However, addressing air quality at the national/regional scale under an integrated assessment framework is desirable. To do so, European-scale models do not provide enough spatial resolution or detail in their ancillary data sources, mainly emission inventories and local meteorology patterns as well as associated results. The objective of this dissertation is to present the developments in the design and application of an Integrated Assessment Model especially conceived for Spain and Portugal. The Atmospheric Evaluation and Research Integrated system for Spain (AERIS) is able to quantify concentration profiles for several pollutants (NO2, SO2, PM10, PM2.5, NH3 and O3), the atmospheric deposition of sulfur and nitrogen species and their related impacts on crops, vegetation, ecosystems and health as a response to percentual changes in the emissions of relevant sectors. The current version of AERIS considers 20 emission sectors, either corresponding to individual SNAP sectors or macrosectors, whose contribution to air quality levels, deposition and impacts have been modeled through the use of source-receptor matrices (SRMs). Thesematrices are proportionality constants that relate emission changes with different air quality indicators and have been derived through statistical parameterizations of an air qualitymodeling system (AQM). For the concrete case of AERIS, its parent AQM relied on the WRF model for meteorology and on the CMAQ model for atmospheric chemical processes. The quantification of atmospheric deposition, impacts on ecosystems, crops, vegetation and human health has been carried out following the standard methodologies established under international negotiation frameworks such as CLRTAP. The programming structure isMATLAB �� -based, allowing great compatibility with typical software such as Microsoft Excel �� or ArcGIS �� Regarding air quality levels, AERIS is able to provide mean annual andmean monthly concentration values, as well as the indicators established in Directive 2008/50/EC, namely the 19th highest hourly value for NO2, the 25th highest daily value and the 4th highest hourly value for SO2, the 36th highest daily value of PM10, the 26th highest maximum 8-hour daily value, SOMO35 and AOT40 for O3. Regarding atmospheric deposition, the annual accumulated deposition per unit of area of species of oxidized and reduced nitrogen as well as sulfur can be estimated. When relating the before mentioned values with specific characteristics of the modeling domain such as land use, forest and crops covers, population counts and epidemiological studies, a wide array of impacts can be calculated. When focusing on impacts on ecosystems and soils, AERIS is able to estimate critical load exceedances and accumulated average exceedances for nitrogen and sulfur species. Damage on forests is estimated as an exceedance of established critical levels of NO2 and SO2. Additionally, AERIS is able to quantify damage caused by O3 and SO2 on grapes, maize, potato, rice, sunflower, tobacco, tomato, watermelon and wheat. Impacts on human health aremodeled as a consequence of exposure to PM2.5 and O3 and quantified as losses in statistical life expectancy and premature mortality indicators. The accuracy of the IAM has been tested by statistically contrasting the obtained results with those yielded by the conventional AQM, exhibiting in most cases a good agreement level. Due to the fact that impacts cannot be directly produced by the AQM, a credibility analysis was carried out for the outputs of AERIS for a given emission scenario by comparing them through probability tests against the performance of GAINS for the same scenario. This analysis revealed a good correspondence in the mean behavior and the probabilistic distributions of the datasets. The verification tests that were applied to AERIS suggest that results are consistent enough to be credited as reasonable and realistic. In conclusion, the main reason thatmotivated the creation of this model was to produce a reliable yet simple screening tool that would provide decision and policy making support for different ���what-if��� scenarios at a low computing cost. The interaction with politicians and other stakeholders dictated that reconciling the complexity of modeling with the conciseness of policies should be reflected by AERIS in both, its conceptual and computational structures. It should be noted however, that AERIS has been created under a policy-driven framework and by no means should be considered as a substitute of the ordinary AQM.

An integrated assessment of two decades of air pollution policy making in Spain: Impacts, costs and improvements

This paper analyses the effects of policy making for air pollution abatement in Spain between 2000 and 2020 under an integrated assessment approach with the AERIS model for number of pollutants (NOx/NO2, PM10/PM2.5, O3, SO2, NH3 and VOC). The analysis of the effects of air pollution focused on different aspects: compliance with the European limit values of Directive 2008/50/EC for NO2 and PM10 for the Spanish air quality management areas; the evaluation of impacts caused by the deposition of atmospheric sulphur and nitrogen on ecosystems; the exceedance of critical levels of NO2 and SO2 in forest areas; the analysis of O3-induced crop damage for grapes, maize, potato, rice, tobacco, tomato, watermelon and wheat; health impacts caused by human exposure to O3 and PM2.5; and costs on society due to crop losses (O3), disability-related absence of work staff and damage to buildings and public property due to soot-related soiling (PM2.5). In general, air quality policy making has delivered improvements in air quality levels throughout Spain and has mitigated the severity of the impacts on ecosystems, health and vegetation in 2020 as target year. The findings of this work constitute an appropriate diagnosis for identifying improvement potentials for further mitigation for policy makers and stakeholders in Spain.

Prevalence of exposure to occupational risks during preganancy in Spain

Objectives. We describe reported exposures to main categories of occupational agents and conditions in Spanish pregnant workers. Methods. Women were recruited at 12th week of pregnancy from main public gynaecological consults to be included in the INMA Spanish cohorts study (n = 2,058). Through personal interviews with structured questionnaires, information on working situation and working conditions during pregnancy was obtained. Results. Fifty percent of the women reported frequent exposure to physical load (standing, heavy lifting) and 45 % reported exposure to three or more indicators of job strain. Exposure to at least one physical agent (noise, vibrations, etc.) affected 25 % of the women. Exposure to chemicals was reported by 20 % of the women, mostly including solvents and cleaning products. Eight percent of the women worked at night shifts. Job strain was more prevalent in office workers and industrial operators. Industrial workers showed the highest prevalence of exposure to chemical and physical pollutants. Conclusions. Our data suggest that working conditions of pregnant women may need increased control in Spain.

Formation of brominated pollutants during the pyrolysis and combustion of tetrabromobisphenol A at different temperatures

Tetrabromobisphenol A (TBBPA) is the most widely used brominated flame retardant worldwide. A detailed examination of the degradation products emitted during thermal decomposition of TBBPA is presented in the study. Runs were performed in a laboratory furnace at different temperatures (650 and 800 ��C) and in different atmospheres (nitrogen and air). More than one hundred semivolatile compounds have been identified by GC/MS, with special interest in brominated ones. Presence of HBr and brominated light hydrocarbons increased with temperature and in the presence of oxygen. Maximum formation of PAHs is observed at pyrolytic condition at the higher temperature. High levels of 2,4-, 2,6- and 2,4,6- bromophenols were found. The levels of polybrominated dibenzo-p-dioxins and furans have been detected in the ppm range. The most abundant isomers are 2,4,6,8-TeBDF in pyrolysis and 1,2,3,7,8-PeBDF in combustion. These results should be considered in the assessment of thermal treatment of materials containing brominated flame retardants.

Emissions of Gases, Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons and Brominated Pollutants during Thermal Degradation of Waste Printed Circuit Boards

Resumen del p��ster presentado en Symposium on Renewable Energy and Products from Biomass and Waste, CIUDEN (Cubillos de Sil, Le��n, Spain), 12-13 May 2015

Stratospheric age of air variations between 1600 and 2100

The current understanding of preindustrial stratospheric age of air (AoA), its variability, and the potential natural forcing imprint on AoA is very limited. Here we assess the influence of natural and anthropogenic forcings on AoA using ensemble simulations for the period 1600 to 2100 and sensitivity simulations for different forcings. The results show that from 1900 to 2100, CO��� and ozone-depleting substances are the dominant drivers of AoA variability. With respect to natural forcings, volcanic eruptions cause the largest AoA variations on time scales of several years, reducing the age in the middle and upper stratosphere and increasing the age below. The effect of the solar forcing on AoA is small and dominated by multidecadal total solar irradiance variations, which correlate negatively with AoA. Additionally, a very weak positive relationship driven by ultraviolett variations is found, which is dominant for the 11 year cycle of solar variability.

Impacts of airborne pollutants on wilderness areas along the Minnesota-Ontario border /

Mode of access: Internet.

Protecting the ozone layer : safe disposal of home appliances containing ozone-depleting substances.

Mode of access: Internet.

Handbook, control of air emissions from Superfund sites.

Mode of access: Internet.