Calibration of structure in a distributed forecasting model for a semiarid flash flood: dynamic surface storage and channel roughness

Flash floods pose a significant danger for life and property. Unfortunately, in arid and semiarid environment the runoff generation shows a complex non-linear behavior with a strong spatial and temporal non-uniformity. As a result, the predictions made by physically-based simulations in semiarid areas are subject to great uncertainty, and a failure in the predictive behavior of existing models is common. Thus better descriptions of physical processes at the watershed scale need to be incorporated into the hydrological model structures. For example, terrain relief has been systematically considered static in flood modelling at the watershed scale. Here, we show that the integrated effect of small distributed relief variations originated through concurrent hydrological processes within a storm event was significant on the watershed scale hydrograph. We model these observations by introducing dynamic formulations of two relief-related parameters at diverse scales: maximum depression storage, and roughness coefficient in channels. In the final (a posteriori) model structure these parameters are allowed to be both time-constant or time-varying. The case under study is a convective storm in a semiarid Mediterranean watershed with ephemeral channels and high agricultural pressures (the Rambla del Albujón watershed; 556 km 2 ), which showed a complex multi-peak response. First, to obtain quasi-sensible simulations in the (a priori) model with time-constant relief-related parameters, a spatially distributed parameterization was strictly required. Second, a generalized likelihood uncertainty estimation (GLUE) inference applied to the improved model structure, and conditioned to observed nested hydrographs, showed that accounting for dynamic relief-related parameters led to improved simulations. The discussion is finally broadened by considering the use of the calibrated model both to analyze the sensitivity of the watershed to storm motion and to attempt the flood forecasting of a stratiform event with highly different behavior.

A real-time measurement system for long-life flood monitoring and warning applications

A flood warning system incorporates telemetered rainfall and flow/water level data measured at various locations in the catchment area. Real-time accurate data collection is required for this use, and sensor networks improve the system capabilities. However, existing sensor nodes struggle to satisfy the hydrological requirements in terms of autonomy, sensor hardware compatibility, reliability and long-range communication. We describe the design and development of a real-time measurement system for flood monitoring, and its deployment in a flash-flood prone 650 km2 semiarid watershed in Southern Spain. A developed low-power and long-range communication device, so-called DatalogV1, provides automatic data gathering and reliable transmission. DatalogV1 incorporates self-monitoring for adapting measurement schedules for consumption management and to capture events of interest. Two tests are used to assess the success of the development. The results show an autonomous and robust monitoring system for long-term collection of water level data in many sparse locations during flood events.

Land use and climate change impacts on soil organic carbon stocks in semi-arid Spain

Purpose The sensitivity of soil organic carbon to global change drivers, according to the depth profile, is receiving increasing attention because of its importance in the global carbon cycle and its potential feedback to climate change. A better knowledge of the vertical distribution of SOC and its controlling factors—the aim of this study—will help scientists predict the consequences of global change. Materials and methods The study area was the Murcia Province (S.E. Spain) under semiarid Mediterranean conditions. The database used consists of 312 soil profiles collected in a systematic grid, each 12 km2 covering a total area of 11,004 km2. Statistical analysis to study the relationships between SOC concentration and control factors in different soil use scenarios was conducted at fixed depths of 0–20, 20–40, 40–60, and 60–100 cm. Results and discussion SOC concentration in the top 40 cm ranged between 6.1 and 31.5 g kg−1, with significant differences according to land use, soil type and lithology, while below this depth, no differences were observed (SOC concentration 2.1–6.8 g kg−1). The ANOVA showed that land use was the most important factor controlling SOC concentration in the 0–40 cm depth. Significant differences were found in the relative importance of environmental and textural factors according to land use and soil depth. In forestland, mean annual precipitation and texture were the main predictors of SOC, while in cropland and shrubland, the main predictors were mean annual temperature and lithology. Total SOC stored in the top 1 m in the region was about 79 Tg with a low mean density of 7.18 kg Cm−3. The vertical distribution of SOC was shallower in forestland and deeper in cropland. A reduction in rainfall would lead to SOC decrease in forestland and shrubland, and an increase of mean annual temperature would adversely affect SOC in croplands and shrubland. With increasing depth, the relative importance of climatic factors decreases and texture becomes more important in controlling SOC in all land uses. Conclusions Due to climate change, impacts will be much greater in surface SOC, the strategies for C sequestration should be focused on subsoil sequestration, which was hindered in forestland due to bedrock limitations to soil depth. In these conditions, sequestration in cropland through appropriate management practices is recommended.

Geophysical characterization of the complex dynamics of groundwater and seawater exchange in a highly stressed aquifer system linked to a coastal lagoon (SE Spain)

Anthropogenic pressure influences the two-way interactions between shallow aquifers and coastal lagoons. Aquifer overexploitation may lead to seawater intrusion, and aquifer recharge from rainfall plus irrigation may, in turn, increase the groundwater discharge into the lagoon. We analyse the evolution, since the 1950s up to the present, of the interactions between the Campo de Cartagena Quaternary aquifer and the Mar Menor coastal lagoon (SE Spain). This is a very heterogeneous and anisotropic detrital aquifer, where aquifer–lagoon interface has a very irregular geometry. Using electrical resistivity tomography, we clearly identified the freshwater–saltwater transition zone and detected areas affected by seawater intrusion. Severity of the intrusion was spatially variable and significantly related to the density of irrigation wells in 1950s–1960s, suggesting the role of groundwater overexploitation. We distinguish two different mechanisms by which water from the sea invades the land: (a) horizontal advance of the interface due to a wide exploitation area and (b) vertical rise (upconing) caused by local intensive pumping. In general, shallow parts of the geophysical profiles show higher electrical resistivity associated with freshwater mainly coming from irrigation return flows, with water resources mostly from deep confined aquifers and imported from Tagus river, 400 km north. This indicates a likely reversal of the former seawater intrusion process.

Investigating hydrological regimes and processes in a set of catchments with temporary waters in Mediterranean Europe

Seven catchments of diverse size in Mediterranean Europe were investigated in order to understand the main aspects of their hydrological functioning. The methods included the analysis of daily and monthly precipitation, monthly potential evapotranspiration rates, flow duration curves, rainfall runoff relationships and catchment internal data for the smaller and more instrumented catchments. The results showed that the catchments were less dry than initially considered. Only one of them was really semi-arid throughout the year. All the remaining catchments showed wet seasons when precipitation exceeded potential evapotrans-piration, allowing aquifer recharge, wet runoff generation mechanisms and relevant baseflow contribution. Nevertheless, local infiltration excess (Hortonian) overland flow was inferred during summer storms in some catchments and urban overland flow in some others. The roles of karstic groundwater, human disturbance and low winter temperatures were identified as having an important impact on the hydrological regime in some of the catchments.

Evidence of a topographic signal in surface soil moisture derived from ENVISAT ASAR wide swath data

The susceptibility of a catchment to flooding is affected by its soil moisture prior to an extreme rainfall event. While soil moisture is routinely observed by satellite instruments, results from previous work on the assimilation of remotely sensed soil moisture into hydrologic models have been mixed. This may have been due in part to the low spatial resolution of the observations used. In this study, the remote sensing aspects of a project attempting to improve flow predictions from a distributed hydrologic model by assimilating soil moisture measurements are described. Advanced Synthetic Aperture Radar (ASAR) Wide Swath data were used to measure soil moisture as, unlike low resolution microwave data, they have sufficient resolution to allow soil moisture variations due to local topography to be detected, which may help to take into account the spatial heterogeneity of hydrological processes. Surface soil moisture content (SSMC) was measured over the catchments of the Severn and Avon rivers in the South West UK. To reduce the influence of vegetation, measurements were made only over homogeneous pixels of improved grassland determined from a land cover map. Radar backscatter was corrected for terrain variations and normalized to a common incidence angle. SSMC was calculated using change detection. To search for evidence of a topographic signal, the mean SSMC from improved grassland pixels on low slopes near rivers was compared to that on higher slopes. When the mean SSMC on low slopes was 30–90%, the higher slopes were slightly drier than the low slopes. The effect was reversed for lower SSMC values. It was also more pronounced during a drying event. These findings contribute to the scant information in the literature on the use of high resolution SAR soil moisture measurement to improve hydrologic models.

Satellite-supported flood forecasting in river networks: a real case study

Satellite-based (e.g., Synthetic Aperture Radar [SAR]) water level observations (WLOs) of the floodplain can be sequentially assimilated into a hydrodynamic model to decrease forecast uncertainty. This has the potential to keep the forecast on track, so providing an Earth Observation (EO) based flood forecast system. However, the operational applicability of such a system for floods developed over river networks requires further testing. One of the promising techniques for assimilation in this field is the family of ensemble Kalman (EnKF) filters. These filters use a limited-size ensemble representation of the forecast error covariance matrix. This representation tends to develop spurious correlations as the forecast-assimilation cycle proceeds, which is a further complication for dealing with floods in either urban areas or river junctions in rural environments. Here we evaluate the assimilation of WLOs obtained from a sequence of real SAR overpasses (the X-band COSMO-Skymed constellation) in a case study. We show that a direct application of a global Ensemble Transform Kalman Filter (ETKF) suffers from filter divergence caused by spurious correlations. However, a spatially-based filter localization provides a substantial moderation in the development of the forecast error covariance matrix, directly improving the forecast and also making it possible to further benefit from a simultaneous online inflow error estimation and correction. Additionally, we propose and evaluate a novel along-network metric for filter localization, which is physically-meaningful for the flood over a network problem. Using this metric, we further evaluate the simultaneous estimation of channel friction and spatially-variable channel bathymetry, for which the filter seems able to converge simultaneously to sensible values. Results also indicate that friction is a second order effect in flood inundation models applied to gradually varied flow in large rivers. The study is not conclusive regarding whether in an operational situation the simultaneous estimation of friction and bathymetry helps the current forecast. Overall, the results indicate the feasibility of stand-alone EO-based operational flood forecasting.

Rainfall estimation by rain gauge-radar combination: a concurrent multiplicative-additive approach

A procedure (concurrent multiplicative-additive objective analysis scheme [CMA-OAS]) is proposed for operational rainfall estimation using rain gauges and radar data. On the basis of a concurrent multiplicative-additive (CMA) decomposition of the spatially nonuniform radar bias, within-storm variability of rainfall and fractional coverage of rainfall are taken into account. Thus both spatially nonuniform radar bias, given that rainfall is detected, and bias in radar detection of rainfall are handled. The interpolation procedure of CMA-OAS is built on Barnes' objective analysis scheme (OAS), whose purpose is to estimate a filtered spatial field of the variable of interest through a successive correction of residuals resulting from a Gaussian kernel smoother applied on spatial samples. The CMA-OAS, first, poses an optimization problem at each gauge-radar support point to obtain both a local multiplicative-additive radar bias decomposition and a regionalization parameter. Second, local biases and regionalization parameters are integrated into an OAS to estimate the multisensor rainfall at the ground level. The procedure is suited to relatively sparse rain gauge networks. To show the procedure, six storms are analyzed at hourly steps over 10,663 km2. Results generally indicated an improved quality with respect to other methods evaluated: a standard mean-field bias adjustment, a spatially variable adjustment with multiplicative factors, and ordinary cokriging.

Anthropogenic nutrient sources and loads from a Mediterranean catchment into a coastal lagoon: Mar Menor, Spain

The Mar Menor is a coastal lagoon increasingly threatened by urban and agricultural pressures. The main watercourse draining into the lagoon is the Rambla del Albujón. A fortnightly campaign carried out over one annual cycle enabled us to characterize the treated urban sewage effluents and agricultural sources which contribute to the nutrient fluxes in the watercourse. Multivariate analysis provided information for establishing chemical signatures and for assessing the relative influence of the various sources on the water quality at the outlet. Mass balances were used to examine net gains and losses, and cross-correlations with rainfall to analyze climatic influence and control factors in the trends of the nutrient flux. The rainfall pattern was significantly cross-correlated with nitrate and phosphorus fluxes from agricultural sources, while fluctuations in the resident population explained the phosphorus flux trend in urban sources. 50% of dissolved inorganic nitrogen was from agricultural sources, while 70% of total phosphate and 91% of total organic carbon were from urban point sources. The net amounts of all the nutrients fell as a result of plant uptake and/or denitrification in the channel. The control of urban point sources (phosphorus-enriched) is suggested as a promptly action for improving the health of the coastal lagoon.

Efficient incorporation of channel cross-section geometry uncertainty into regional and global scale flood inundation models

This paper investigates the challenge of representing structural differences in river channel cross-section geometry for regional to global scale river hydraulic models and the effect this can have on simulations of wave dynamics. Classically, channel geometry is defined using data, yet at larger scales the necessary information and model structures do not exist to take this approach. We therefore propose a fundamentally different approach where the structural uncertainty in channel geometry is represented using a simple parameterization, which could then be estimated through calibration or data assimilation. This paper first outlines the development of a computationally efficient numerical scheme to represent generalised channel shapes using a single parameter, which is then validated using a simple straight channel test case and shown to predict wetted perimeter to within 2% for the channels tested. An application to the River Severn, UK is also presented, along with an analysis of model sensitivity to channel shape, depth and friction. The channel shape parameter was shown to improve model simulations of river level, particularly for more physically plausible channel roughness and depth parameter ranges. Calibrating channel Manning’s coefficient in a rectangular channel provided similar water level simulation accuracy in terms of Nash-Sutcliffe efficiency to a model where friction and shape or depth were calibrated. However, the calibrated Manning coefficient in the rectangular channel model was ~2/3 greater than the likely physically realistic value for this reach and this erroneously slowed wave propagation times through the reach by several hours. Therefore, for large scale models applied in data sparse areas, calibrating channel depth and/or shape may be preferable to assuming a rectangular geometry and calibrating friction alone.

The potential of flood forecasting using a variable-resolution global Digital Terrain Model and flood extents from Synthetic Aperture Radar images

A basic data requirement of a river flood inundation model is a Digital Terrain Model (DTM) of the reach being studied. The scale at which modeling is required determines the accuracy required of the DTM. For modeling floods in urban areas, a high resolution DTM such as that produced by airborne LiDAR (Light Detection And Ranging) is most useful, and large parts of many developed countries have now been mapped using LiDAR. In remoter areas, it is possible to model flooding on a larger scale using a lower resolution DTM, and in the near future the DTM of choice is likely to be that derived from the TanDEM-X Digital Elevation Model (DEM). A variable-resolution global DTM obtained by combining existing high and low resolution data sets would be useful for modeling flood water dynamics globally, at high resolution wherever possible and at lower resolution over larger rivers in remote areas. A further important data resource used in flood modeling is the flood extent, commonly derived from Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) images. Flood extents become more useful if they are intersected with the DTM, when water level observations (WLOs) at the flood boundary can be estimated at various points along the river reach. To illustrate the utility of such a global DTM, two examples of recent research involving WLOs at opposite ends of the spatial scale are discussed. The first requires high resolution spatial data, and involves the assimilation of WLOs from a real sequence of high resolution SAR images into a flood model to update the model state with observations over time, and to estimate river discharge and model parameters, including river bathymetry and friction. The results indicate the feasibility of such an Earth Observation-based flood forecasting system. The second example is at a larger scale, and uses SAR-derived WLOs to improve the lower-resolution TanDEM-X DEM in the area covered by the flood extents. The resulting reduction in random height error is significant.

Improving the TanDEM-X Digital Elevation Model for flood modelling using flood extents from Synthetic Aperture Radar images

The topography of many floodplains in the developed world has now been surveyed with high resolution sensors such as airborne LiDAR (Light Detection and Ranging), giving accurate Digital Elevation Models (DEMs) that facilitate accurate flood inundation modelling. This is not always the case for remote rivers in developing countries. However, the accuracy of DEMs produced for modelling studies on such rivers should be enhanced in the near future by the high resolution TanDEM-X WorldDEM. In a parallel development, increasing use is now being made of flood extents derived from high resolution Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) images for calibrating, validating and assimilating observations into flood inundation models in order to improve these. This paper discusses an additional use of SAR flood extents, namely to improve the accuracy of the TanDEM-X DEM in the floodplain covered by the flood extents, thereby permanently improving this DEM for future flood modelling and other studies. The method is based on the fact that for larger rivers the water elevation generally changes only slowly along a reach, so that the boundary of the flood extent (the waterline) can be regarded locally as a quasi-contour. As a result, heights of adjacent pixels along a small section of waterline can be regarded as samples with a common population mean. The height of the central pixel in the section can be replaced with the average of these heights, leading to a more accurate estimate. While this will result in a reduction in the height errors along a waterline, the waterline is a linear feature in a two-dimensional space. However, improvements to the DEM heights between adjacent pairs of waterlines can also be made, because DEM heights enclosed by the higher waterline of a pair must be at least no higher than the corrected heights along the higher waterline, whereas DEM heights not enclosed by the lower waterline must in general be no lower than the corrected heights along the lower waterline. In addition, DEM heights between the higher and lower waterlines can also be assigned smaller errors because of the reduced errors on the corrected waterline heights. The method was tested on a section of the TanDEM-X Intermediate DEM (IDEM) covering an 11km reach of the Warwickshire Avon, England. Flood extents from four COSMO-SKyMed images were available at various stages of a flood in November 2012, and a LiDAR DEM was available for validation. In the area covered by the flood extents, the original IDEM heights had a mean difference from the corresponding LiDAR heights of 0.5 m with a standard deviation of 2.0 m, while the corrected heights had a mean difference of 0.3 m with standard deviation 1.2 m. These figures show that significant reductions in IDEM height bias and error can be made using the method, with the corrected error being only 60% of the original. Even if only a single SAR image obtained near the peak of the flood was used, the corrected error was only 66% of the original. The method should also be capable of improving the final TanDEM-X DEM and other DEMs, and may also be of use with data from the SWOT (Surface Water and Ocean Topography) satellite.

Aplicacoes da altimetria topex/poseidon no estudo de aspectos dinamicos do oceano atlantico sul ocidental

Dados altimétricos do satélite TOPEX/POSEIDON obtidos durante 1993 e 1994 foram utilizados para estudar a dinâmica oceanográfica na região oeste do oceano Atlântico Sul, entre as latitudes de 15°S e 50°S e longitudes de 30°W e 65°W. Simultaneamente, dados hidrográficos (históricos e sinópticos) e imagens termais do sensor AVHRR/NOAA foram utilizados com o objetivo de proporcionar uma comparação com os resultados da altimetria. Características da topografia dinâmica superficial, da variabilidade e anomalias da topografia dinâmica são apresentadas. Imprecisões dos modelos do geóide marinho restringiram o estudo dos padrões da topografia dinâmica supercial e das correntes geostrósficas superficiais, a comprimentos de onda espaciais superiores a 2400 Km. A variabilidade temporal da topografia dinâmica demonstrou um padrão altamente energético na região da Confluência Brasil-Malvinas durante o período. Diferenças sazonais foram observadas com os maiores valores de variabilidade nos meses de inverno e primavera. As anomalias (resíduos) da topografia dinâmica foram utilizadas no estudo de fenômenos transientes, onde um vórtice foi acompanhado acompanhado ao longo do tempo, e em conjunto com imagens AVHRR/NOAA. Feições térmicas superficiais foram confrontadas com anomalias altimétricas de trajetórias específicas, contemporâneas às imagens, apresentando ótima concordância e confirmando a excelente potencialidade do uso conjunto destes dois tipos de dados. Finalmente, a técnica da topografia dinâmica composta (combinação de dados altimétricos e climatológicos) foi utilizada para reconstruir a topografia dinâmica total a partir das anomalias altimétricas, sem a contaminação das imprecisões dos modelos do geóide. O ciclo escolhido corresponde ao mesmo período de um cruzeiro hidrográfico, proporcionando uma comparação entre topografias dinâmicas (e velocidades geostróficas superficiais) estimadas pelos dois conjuntos de dados. A concordãncia entre os dois resultados foi bastante satisfatória, indicado a possibilidade de se gerar estimativas da circulação geostrófica superficial, com boa confiabilidade, apenas com dados do sátelite e dados hidrográficos climatológicos. Concluíndo, o TOPEX/POSEIDON apresenta-se como uma excelente ferramente para o estudo da dinâmica oceanográfica no Atlântico Sul, proporcionando uma análise quasi-sinóptica de qualidade e, principalmente, aumentando o conhecimento desta região.

Contribuição a Geologia do Holoceno da Província Costeira do Rio Grande do Sul - Brasil

A região costeira do Brasil Meridional, definida como Provincia Costeira do Rio Grande do Sul é constituida por dois elementos geológicos maiores, o Embasamento e a Bacia de Pelotas. O primeiro, composto pelo complexo cristalino pré-cambriano e pelas sequências sedimentares e vulcânicas, paleozóicas e, mesozoicas, da Bacia do Paraná, comportando-se como uma plataforma instável durante os tempos cretácicos, deu origem ao segundo, através de movimentações tectônicas. Desde então a Bacia de Pelotas, uma bacia marginal subsidente, passou a receber a carga clástica derivada da dissecação das terras altas adjacentes as quais constituíam parte do seu embasamento que na parte ocidental atuou no inicio como uma área levemente positiva, estabilizando-se após. A sequência sedimentar ali acumulada, cerca de I 500 metros de espessura, é fruto de sucessivas transgressões e regressões. Controladas no princípio pelo balanço entre as taxas de subsidência e de sedimentação, a partir do Pleistoceno estas transgressões e regressões passaram a ser governadas pelas variações glacio-eustáticas ocorridas no decorrer da Era Cenozóica A cobertura holocênica deste conjunto é considerada como outro elemento geológico importante da provincia costeira pelo fato de compor a maioria das grandes feiçoes morfograficas responsáveis pela configuraçao superficial da região. Ela é constituida por um pacote trans-regressivo cuja porção superior expõe-se na planície litorânea, encerrando uma série de unidades lito-estratigraficas descontinuas e de idade variável resultantes do deslocamento de vários ambientes de sedimentação por sobre a mesma região. O estabelecimento de sua história geológica somente tornou-se possivel após detida análise geomorfológica. A planicie arenosa litorânea que separa a Lagoa dos Patos do Oceano Atlântico, revelou-se composta pela sucessão de quatro sistemas de barreiras, constituindo a denominada Barreira Múltipla da Lagoa dos Patos, cuja origem está diretamente relacionada às oscilações eustáticas que se sucederam na região,durante os últimos 6 000 anos, após o final da Transgressão Flandriana. A primeira barreira formou-se durante o nivel máximo atingido pelo mar no final da grande transgressão holocênica, construida a partir de longos esporões arenosos ancorados aos promontórios existentes na entrada das várias baias que ornamentavam a costa de então. Sobre tais esporões acumularam-se, durante pequenas oscilações do nivel do mar, extensos depósitos arenosos de natureza eólica Outra barreira foi desenvolvida a partir da emersão de barras marinhas durante a fase regressiva que se sucedeu, aprisionando um corpo lagunar sobre um terraço marinho recém exposto. Ainda no decorrer desta transgressão, grandes quantidades de areia trazidas da antepraia foram mobilizadas pelo vento construindo grandes campos de dunas sobre a barreira emersa.Na área lagunar, igualmente afetada pela regressão, depósitos lagunares e paludais foram acumulados sobre o terraço marinho. Assim estruturada, a barreira resistiu a fase transgressiva subsequente quando o aumento do nivel do mar foi insuficiente para encobri-Ia. Na margem oceânica a ação das ondas promoveu a formação de falésias, retrabalhando o material arenoso e redistribuindo-o pela antepraia. Na margem da Lagoa dos Patos de então, o avanço das aguas causou a abrasão do terraço marinho parcialmente recoberto por depósitos paludais e lagunares. Nova fase regressiva ocasionou o desenvolvimento de outra barreira no lado oceânico isolando uma nova laguna enquanto que na margem da Lagoa dos Patos emergia um terraço lagunar. Obedecendo a este mesmo mecanismo a quarta barreira foi acrescentada a costa oceânica e um segundo terraço lagunar construido na borda da Lagoa dos Patos. O constante acúmulo de sedimentos arenosos que se processou na área após a transgressão holocênica, através de processos praiais e eólicos desenvolvidos num ambiente de completa estabilidade tectônica, aumentou consideravelmente a área emersa da província costeira A parte superior da cobertura holocênica constitui assim uma grande sequência regressiva deposicional, que teve como principal fonte os extensos depósitos que recobriam a plataforma continental adjacente. De posse de tais elementos, a costa atual do Rio Grande do Sul é uma costa secundária, de barreiras, modelada por agentes marinhos, conforme a classificação de Shepard. A tentativa de correlaçao entre as várias oscilaçoes eustáticas deduzidas a partir da análise geomorfológica da região ( com aquelas que constam na curva de variaçao do nlvel do mar o corrida nos últimos 6 000 anos, apresentada por Fairbridge, revela coincidências encorajadoras no sentido de estender o esquema evolutivo aqui proposto, como uma hipótese de trabalho no estudo dos terrenos holocênicos restantes da Província Costeira do Rio Grande do Sul. A sua utilização tornará muito mais fácil a organização crono-estratigráfica das diversas unidades que nela se encontram.