Commercialization of agriculture in the Himalayas

Increased market integration and commercialization of traditional agriculture in the Himalayas is part of a development strategy towards growth and better standard of living. More than 97 percent households depend upon agricultural and allied activities for livelihood which constitutes 30 percent of the household income. Given the importance of commercialization of agriculture to improve the productivity, per capita income and thereby the standard of living in the Himalayas, we examine the factors affecting the commercialization of agriculture on the basis of primary survey data. The results reveal that the land size, gender of the household head, livestock assets, ethnicity, education and location are important determinants of commercialization. Although commercialization of agriculture is considered as stimulated private-sector activity, public policy is essential to facilitate driving forces viz., trade and market reforms, rural infrastructure, and the institutional framework for legal and contractual arrangements between farmers and processors.

Chapter 6 Economic integration and changes in industrial location in Vietnam

Vietnam has been praised for its achievements in economic growth and success in poverty reduction over the last two decades. The incidence of poverty reportedly fell from 58.1% in 1993 to 19.5% in 2004 (VASS [2006, 13]). The country is also considered to have only a moderate level of aggregate economic inequality by international comparisons. As of the early 2000s, Vietnam’s consumption-based Gini coefficient is found to be comparable to that of other countries with similar levels of per capita GDP. The Gini index did increase between 1993 and 2004, but rather slowly, from 0.34 to 0.37 (VASS [2006, 13]). Yet, as the country moves on with its market oriented reforms, the question of inequality has been highlighted in policy and academic discourses. In particular, it is pointed out that socio-economic inequalities between regions (or provinces) are significant and have been widening behind aggregate figures (NCSSH [2001], Mekong Economics [2005], VASS [2006]). Between 1993 and 2004, while real per capita expenditure increased in all regions, it grew fastest in those regions with the highest per capita expenditures and vice versa, resulting in greater regional disparities (VASS [2006, 37]). A major contributing factor to such regional inequalities is the uneven distribution of industry within the country. According to the Statistical Yearbook of Vietnam, of the country's gross industrial output in 2007, over 50% belongs to the South East region, close to 25% to the Red River Delta, and about 10% to the Mekong River Delta. All remaining regions share some 10% of the country's gross industrial output. At a quick glance, the South East increased its share of the total industrial gross output in the 1990s, while the Red River Delta started to gain ground in more recent years. How can the government deal with regional disparities is a valid question. In order to offer an answer, it is necessary in the first place to grasp the trend of disparities as well as its background. To that end, this paper is a preparatory endeavor. Regional disparities in industrial activities can essentially be seen as a result of the location decisions of enterprises. While the General Statistics Office (GSO) of Vietnam has conducted one enterprise census (followed by annual enterprise surveys) and two stages of establishment censuses since 2000, sectorally and geographically disaggregated data are not readily available. Therefore, for the moment, we will draw on earlier studies of industrial location and the determinants of enterprises’ location decisions in Vietnam. The remainder of this paper is structured as follows. The following two sections deal with the country context. Section 2 will outline some major developments in Vietnam’s international economic relations that may affect sub-national location of industry. According to the theory of spatial economics, economic integration is seen as a major driver of changes in industrial location, both between and within countries (Nishikimi [2008]). Section 3, on the other hand, will consider some possible factors affecting geographic distribution of industry in the domestic sphere. In Section 4, existing literature on industrial and firm location will be examined, and Section 5 will briefly summarize the findings and suggest some areas for future research.

Factor decomposition of income inequality change : Japan's regional income disparity from 1955 to 1998

We propose a method for the decomposition of inequality changes based on panel data regression. The method is an efficient way to quantify the contributions of variables to changes of the Theil T index while satisfying the property of uniform addition. We illustrate the method using prefectural data from Japan for the period 1955 to 1998. Japan experienced a diminishing of regional income disparity during the years of high economic growth from 1955 to 1973. After estimating production functions using panel data for prefectures in Japan, we apply the new decomposition approach to identify each production factor’s contributions to the changes of per capita income inequality among prefectures. The decomposition results show that total factor productivity (residual) growth, population change (migration), and public capital stock growth contributed to the diminishing of per capita income disparity.

Voting behavior in Indonesia from 1999 to 2014 : religious cleavage or economic performance?

In this study, we examine the voting behavior in Indonesian parliamentary elections from 1999 to 2014. After summarizing the changes in Indonesian parties' share of the vote from a historical standpoint, we investigate the voting behavior with simple regression models to analyze the effect of regional characteristics on Islamic/secular parties' vote share, using aggregated panel data at the district level. Then, we also test the hypothesis of retrospective economic voting. The results show that districts which formerly stood strongly behind Islamic parties continued to select those parties, or gave preference to abstention over the parties in some elections. From the point of view of retrospective economic voting, we found that districts which experienced higher per capita economic growth gave more support to the ruling parties, although our results remain tentative because information on 2014 is not yet available.

Consumption-based accounting of U.S. CO2 emissions from 1990 to 2010

To tackle global climate change, it is desirable to reduce CO2 emissions associated with household consumption in particular in developed countries, which tend to have much higher per capita household carbon footprints than less developed countries. Our results show that carbon intensity of different consumption categories in the U.S. varies significantly. The carbon footprint tends to increase with increasing income but at a decreasing rate due to additional income being spent on less carbon intensive consumption items. This general tendency is frequently compensated by higher frequency of international trips and higher housing related carbon emissions (larger houses and more space for consumption items). Our results also show that more than 30% of CO2 emissions associated with household consumption in the U.S. occur outside of the U.S. Given these facts, the design of carbon mitigation policies should take changing household consumption patterns and international trade into account.

Determinants of inbound tourists in Cambodia : a dynamic panel data approach

Understanding the determinants of tourism demand is crucial for the tourism sector. This paper develops a dynamic panel model to examine the determinants of inbound tourists to Siem Reap airport, Phnom Penh airport, and land and waterway borders in Cambodia. Consistent with the consumer theory of tourism consumption, a 10% increase in the origin country GDP per capita is predicted to increase the number of tourist visits to Siem Reap airport by 5.8%. A 10% increase in the real exchange rate between the origin country and Cambodia is predicted to decrease the number of tourist visits by 0.89%. In contrast, the number of foreign tourists in a previous period has little effect on the number of foreign tourists in the current period. Additionally, the determinants are different by the mode of entry to Cambodia.

A methodology for territorial distribution of CO2 emission reductions in transport sector

Greenhouse gas emission reduction is the pillar of the Kyoto Protocol and one of the main goals of the European Union (UE) energy policy. National reduction targets for EU member states and an overall target for the EU-15 (8%) were set by the Kyoto Protocol. This reduction target is based on emissions in the reference year (1990) and must be reached by 2012. EU energy policy does not set any national targets, only an overall reduction target of 20% by 2020. This paper transfers global greenhouse gas emission reduction targets in both these documents to the transport sector and specifically to CO2 emissions. It proposes a nonlinear distribution method with objective, dynamic targets for reducing CO2 emissions in the transport sector, according to the context and characteristics of each geographical area. First, we analyse CO2 emissions from transport in the reference year (1990) and their evolution from 1990 to 2007. We then propose a nonlinear methodology for distributing dynamic CO2 emission reduction targets. We have applied the proposed distribution function for 2012 and 2020 at two territorial levels (EU member states and Spanish autonomous regions). The weighted distribution is based on per capita CO2 emissions and CO2 emissions per gross domestic product. Finally, we show the weighted targets found for each EU member state and each Spanish autonomous region, compare them with the real achievements to date, and forecast the situation for the years the Kyoto and EU goals are to be met. The results underline the need for ?weighted? decentralised decisions to be made at different territorial levels with a view to achieving a common goal, so relative convergence of all the geographical areas is reached over time. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Risk Allocation in Toll Highway Concessions in Spain: Lessons from Economic Recession

Spain has a long tradition of encouraging toll highways by granting concessions to private companies. Concessions in Spain have been characterized by a willingness to transfer considerable risk to the private sector. Traffic demand, acquisition of the right-of-way, and financial risk have often been allocated to the private sector. From 1996 to 2011, 16 toll highway concessions, covering a total distance of 835 km, were awarded by the central government of Spain with this approach. Some of those highways started their operations just before the economic recession began. The recession had negative consequences for Spain's economy. The gross domestic product per capita plummeted, and the unemployment rate increased from 9% to 20% of the working population in just 2 years. The recession also had severe consequences for the economic performance of toll highway concessions. Traffic levels declined at a much greater rate than did the gross domestic product. In addition, the conditions imposed by the financial markets on borrowers became much stricter because of the liquidity crisis. This study analyzes the impact that the economic recession ultimately had on the performance of toll highway concessions in Spain and the actions that the government adopted to avoid the bankruptcy of the concessionaires. It was found that the economic recession helped identify some deficiencies in how risk had been allocated in Spain. The measures that both Spain and the European Union are adopting so as to improve risk allocation are discussed.

Post-harmonised European National Travel Surveys

Look-up tables are collected and analysed for 12 European National Travel Surveys (NTS) in a harmonized way covering the age group 13-84 year. Travel behaviour measured as kilometres, time use and trips per traveller is compared. Trips per traveller are very similar over the countries whereas kilometres differ most, from minus 28% for Spain to plus 19% and 14% for Sweden and Finland. It is shown that two main factors for differences are GDP per capita and density in the urban areas. The latter is the main reason for the low level in Spain. Mode share is except for Spain with a very high level of walking trips rather similar with a higher level of cycling in the Netherlands, more public transport in Switzerland, and more air traffic in Sweden. Normally kilometres per respondent/inhabitant is used for national planning purpose and this is very affected by the share of mobile travellers. The immobile share is varying between 8 and 28% with 6 NTS at a 15-17% level. These differences are analysed and discussed and it is concluded that the immobile share should be a little less than 15-17% because it is assessed that some short trips might have been forgotten in these 6 countries. The share has a downward tendency with higher density. The resulting immobile share is very dependent on data collection methodology, sampling method, quality of interviewer felt-work etc. The paper shows other possibilities to improve local surveys based on comparison with other countries.

Probabilistic meta-analysis of risk from the exposure to Hg in artisanal gold mining communities in Colombia

Colombia is one of the largest per capita mercury polluters in the world as a consequence of its artisanal gold mining activities. The severity of this problem in terms of potential health effects was evaluated by means of a probabilistic risk assessment carried out in the twelve departments (or provinces) in Colombia with the largest gold production. The two exposure pathways included in the risk assessment were inhalation of elemental Hg vapors and ingestion of fish contaminated with methyl mercury. Exposure parameters for the adult population (especially rates of fish consumption) were obtained from nation-wide surveys and concentrations of Hg in air and of methyl-mercury in fish were gathered from previous scientific studies. Fish consumption varied between departments and ranged from 0 to 0.3 kg d?1. Average concentrations of total mercury in fish (70 data) ranged from 0.026 to 3.3 lg g?1. A total of 550 individual measurements of Hg in workshop air (ranging from menor queDL to 1 mg m?3) and 261 measurements of Hg in outdoor air (ranging from menor queDL to 0.652 mg m?3) were used to generate the probability distributions used as concentration terms in the calculation of risk. All but two of the distributions of Hazard Quotients (HQ) associated with ingestion of Hg-contaminated fish for the twelve regions evaluated presented median values higher than the threshold value of 1 and the 95th percentiles ranged from 4 to 90. In the case of exposure to Hg vapors, minimum values of HQ for the general population exceeded 1 in all the towns included in this study, and the HQs for miner-smelters burning the amalgam is two orders of magnitude higher, reaching values of 200 for the 95th percentile. Even acknowledging the conservative assumptions included in the risk assessment and the uncertainties associated with it, its results clearly reveal the exorbitant levels of risk endured not only by miner-smelters but also by the general population of artisanal gold mining communities in Colombia.

Probabilistic assessment of risk from the exposure to mercury in artisanal gold mining communities in Colombia

Colombia is one the largest per capita mercury polluters as a consequence of its artisanal gold mining operations, which are steadily increasing following the rising price of this metal. Compared to gravimetric separation methods and cyanidation, the concentration of gold using Hg amalgams presents several advantages: the process is less time-consuming and minimizes gold losses, and Hg is easily transported and inexpensive relative to the selling price of gold. Very often, mercury amalgamation is carried out on site by unprotected workers. During this operation large amounts of mercury are discharged to the environment and eventually reach the fresh water bodies in the vicinity where it is subjected to methylation. Additionally, as gold is released from the amalgam by heating on open charcoal furnaces in small workshops, mercury vapors are emitted and inhaled by the artisanal smelters and the general population

Explaining light vehicle demand evolution in interurban toll roads: a dynamic panel data analysis in Spain

Tolls have increasingly become a common mechanism to fund road projects in recent decades. Therefore, improving knowledge of demand behavior constitutes a key aspect for stakeholders dealing with the management of toll roads. However, the literature concerning demand elasticity estimates for interurban toll roads is still limited due to their relatively scarce number in the international context. Furthermore, existing research has left some aspects to be investigated, among others, the choice of GDP as the most common socioeconomic variable to explain traffic growth over time. This paper intends to determine the variables that better explain the evolution of light vehicle demand in toll roads throughout the years. To that end, we establish a dynamic panel data methodology aimed at identifying the key socioeconomic variables explaining changes in light vehicle demand over time. The results show that, despite some usefulness, GDP does not constitute the most appropriate explanatory variable, while other parameters such as employment or GDP per capita lead to more stable and consistent results. The methodology is applied to Spanish toll roads for the 1990?2011 period, which constitutes a very interesting case on variations in toll road use, as road demand has experienced a significant decrease since the beginning of the economic crisis in 2008.

Gravidez na adolescência: estudo descritivo de variáveis psicológicas, sócio-demográficas e das relações objetais em adolescentes gestantes e sexualmente ativas

O presente estudo consta de uma etapa quantitativa e outra qualitativa; tem como objetivos descrever variáveis sócio-demográficas e psicológicas de adolescentes sexualmente ativas e primigestas de um Programa de Assistência Médica e Psicossocial à Adolescência (PAMPA) no período de 2000-2002. Descrever o conteúdo intrapsíquico de fantasias inconscientes em adolescentes. Identificar e correlacionar o conteúdo de fantasias inconscientes de adolescentes sexualmente ativas e primigestas em diferentes situações conjugais. Foram utilizadas as instalações do PAMPA na aplicação de uma entrevista semidiretiva e o Teste de Relações Objetais de Phillipson. Na análise sócio-demográfica verifico-se uma distribuição das adolescentes nas faixas etárias de 16 a 17 anos (31,1%), 14 a 15 anos (23,8%) e, 12 a 13 anos. 93,3%, das adolescentes são solteiras e, 6,7% é casada ou encontra-se em união consensual. Um terço das adolescentes encontra-se abaixo da escolaridade esperada para a faixa etária. A renda per capita de 48,6%, varia entre 0,5 e 1 salário mínimo. 40,2% das adolescentes tiveram a sexarca e destas 10,6% pertencem à faixa etária de 12 a 13 anos; e 48,5% de 16 a 17 anos. Metade das adolescentes sexualmente ativas estão grávidas. 57,6% das gestantes têm de 16 a 17 anos. Das adolescentes que iniciaram a vida sexual na faixa etária de 12 a 13 anos, 52,6% está grávida. 51% das adolescentes que tiveram a sexarca na faixa etária de 14 a 15 anos estão gestando e representam 45,5% do total de gestantes. Quanto à situação conjugal das primigestas, 54,5% é solteira e possui parceiro; já 30,3% encontra-se em união consensual ou é casada como conseqüência da gravidez. Não existem diferenças significativas da renda per capita das gestantes em relação à amostra em geral. 60,6% das gestantes buscaram assistência pré-natal a partir do segundo trimestre gestacional. 62,5% das adolescentes realizaram parto vaginal, 21,9% um parto por fórceps e 15,6% parto por cesariana. Observamos semelhanças no funcionamento psíquico em relação ao Sistema Tensional Inconsciente Dominante entre gestantes e adolescentes sexualmente ativas. Fatores como o não planejamento da gravidez e união conjugal em função da gravidez, são mais significativos, mostrando que o relacionamento conjugal e a maternidade não foram ainda elaborados e intensificam o processo de luto próprio da adolescência. No funcionamento psíquico, das gestantes, existem dificuldades em organizar a identidade sexual, negando modificações próprias da adolescência na tentativa de preservar relações vinculares infantilizadas. O conflito edípico permeia como principal nas relações triangulares, devido ao predomínio de objetos parciais persecutórios, incapacidade de conter o par combinado envolvendo sempre um terceiro excluído. Existe também a necessidade de manutenção de relações fusionais com exclusividade do vínculo não erotizado que levam a angústias intensas nas fantasias de separação, abandono e perda, sentimentos de fragmentação e medo de ataques destrutivo-vingativos. Quanto à período gravídico, as gestantes demonstram ambivalência na aceitação e necessidade de consentimento das figuras parentais, vinculadas à angústia surgida pelo medo de rejeição e abandono

Gravidez na adolescência: estudo descritivo de variáveis psicológicas, sócio-demográficas e das relações objetais em adolescentes gestantes e sexualmente ativas

O presente estudo consta de uma etapa quantitativa e outra qualitativa; tem como objetivos descrever variáveis sócio-demográficas e psicológicas de adolescentes sexualmente ativas e primigestas de um Programa de Assistência Médica e Psicossocial à Adolescência (PAMPA) no período de 2000-2002. Descrever o conteúdo intrapsíquico de fantasias inconscientes em adolescentes. Identificar e correlacionar o conteúdo de fantasias inconscientes de adolescentes sexualmente ativas e primigestas em diferentes situações conjugais. Foram utilizadas as instalações do PAMPA na aplicação de uma entrevista semidiretiva e o Teste de Relações Objetais de Phillipson. Na análise sócio-demográfica verifico-se uma distribuição das adolescentes nas faixas etárias de 16 a 17 anos (31,1%), 14 a 15 anos (23,8%) e, 12 a 13 anos. 93,3%, das adolescentes são solteiras e, 6,7% é casada ou encontra-se em união consensual. Um terço das adolescentes encontra-se abaixo da escolaridade esperada para a faixa etária. A renda per capita de 48,6%, varia entre 0,5 e 1 salário mínimo. 40,2% das adolescentes tiveram a sexarca e destas 10,6% pertencem à faixa etária de 12 a 13 anos; e 48,5% de 16 a 17 anos. Metade das adolescentes sexualmente ativas estão grávidas. 57,6% das gestantes têm de 16 a 17 anos. Das adolescentes que iniciaram a vida sexual na faixa etária de 12 a 13 anos, 52,6% está grávida. 51% das adolescentes que tiveram a sexarca na faixa etária de 14 a 15 anos estão gestando e representam 45,5% do total de gestantes. Quanto à situação conjugal das primigestas, 54,5% é solteira e possui parceiro; já 30,3% encontra-se em união consensual ou é casada como conseqüência da gravidez. Não existem diferenças significativas da renda per capita das gestantes em relação à amostra em geral. 60,6% das gestantes buscaram assistência pré-natal a partir do segundo trimestre gestacional. 62,5% das adolescentes realizaram parto vaginal, 21,9% um parto por fórceps e 15,6% parto por cesariana. Observamos semelhanças no funcionamento psíquico em relação ao Sistema Tensional Inconsciente Dominante entre gestantes e adolescentes sexualmente ativas. Fatores como o não planejamento da gravidez e união conjugal em função da gravidez, são mais significativos, mostrando que o relacionamento conjugal e a maternidade não foram ainda elaborados e intensificam o processo de luto próprio da adolescência. No funcionamento psíquico, das gestantes, existem dificuldades em organizar a identidade sexual, negando modificações próprias da adolescência na tentativa de preservar relações vinculares infantilizadas. O conflito edípico permeia como principal nas relações triangulares, devido ao predomínio de objetos parciais persecutórios, incapacidade de conter o par combinado envolvendo sempre um terceiro excluído. Existe também a necessidade de manutenção de relações fusionais com exclusividade do vínculo não erotizado que levam a angústias intensas nas fantasias de separação, abandono e perda, sentimentos de fragmentação e medo de ataques destrutivo-vingativos. Quanto à período gravídico, as gestantes demonstram ambivalência na aceitação e necessidade de consentimento das figuras parentais, vinculadas à angústia surgida pelo medo de rejeição e abandono

Temporal variation, dormancy, and coexistence: A field test of the storage effect

Theoretical models suggest that overlapping generations, in combination with a temporally fluctuating environment, may allow the persistence of competitors that otherwise would not coexist. Despite extensive theoretical development, this “storage effect” hypothesis has received little empirical attention. Herein I present the first explicit mathematical analysis of the contribution of the storage effect to the dynamics of competing natural populations. In Oneida Lake, NY, data collected over the past 30 years show a striking negative correlation between the water-column densities of two species of suspension-feeding zooplankton, Daphnia galeata mendotae and Daphnia pulicaria. I have demonstrated competition between these two species and have shown that both possess long-lived eggs that establish overlapping generations. Moreover, recruitment to this long-lived stage varies annually, so that both daphnids have years in which they are favored (for recruitment) relative to their competitor. When the long-term population growth rates are calculated both with and without the effects of a variable environment, I show that D. galeata mendotae clearly cannot persist without the environmental variation and prolonged dormancy (i.e., storage effect) whereas D. pulicaria persists through consistently high per capita recruitment to the long-lived stage.