Fragrance release from the surface of branched poly(amide)s

Enzymes are powerful tools in organic synthesis that are able to catalyse a wide variety of selective chemical transformations under mild and environmentally friendly conditions. Enzymes such as the lipases have also found applications in the synthesis and degradation of polymeric materials. However, the use of these natural catalysts in the synthesis and the post-synthetic modification of dendrimers and hyperbranched molecules is an application of chemistry yet to be explored extensively. In this study the use of two hydrolytic enzymes, a lipase from Candida cylindracea and a cutinase from Fusarium solani pisii, were investigated in the selective cleavage of ester groups situated on the peripheral layer of two families of branched polyamides. These branched polyamides were conjugated to simple fragrances citronellol and L-menthol via ester linkages. Hydrolysis of the ester linkage between the fragrances and the branched polyamide support was carried out in aqueous buffered systems at slightly basic pH values under the optimum operative conditions for the enzymes used. These preliminary qualitative investigations revealed that partial cleavage of the ester functionalities from the branched polyamide support had occurred. However, the ability of the enzymes to interact with the substrates decreased considerably as the branching density, the rigidity of the structure and the bulkiness of the polyamide-fragrance conjugates increased.

Characterization of the complex locus of bean encoding polygalacturonase-inhibiting proteins reveals subfunctionalization for defense against fungi and insects.

Polygalacturonase-inhibiting proteins (PGIPs) are extracellular plant inhibitors of fungal endopolygalacturonases (PGs) that belong to the superfamily of Leu-rich repeat proteins. We have characterized the full complement of pgip genes in the bean (Phaseolus vulgaris) genotype BAT93. This comprises four clustered members that span a 50-kb region and, based on their similarity, form two pairs (Pvpgip1/Pvpgip2 and Pvpgip3/Pvpgip4). Characterization of the encoded products revealed both partial redundancy and subfunctionalization against fungal-derived PGs. Notably, the pair PvPGIP3/PvPGIP4 also inhibited PGs of two mirid bugs (Lygus rugulipennis and Adelphocoris lineolatus). Characterization of Pvpgip genes of Pinto bean showed variations limited to single synonymous substitutions or small deletions. A three-amino acid deletion encompassing a residue previously identified as crucial for recognition of PG of Fusarium moniliforme was responsible for the inability of BAT93 PvPGIP2 to inhibit this enzyme. Consistent with the large variations observed in the promoter sequences, reverse transcription-PCR expression analysis revealed that the different family members differentially respond to elicitors, wounding, and salicylic acid. We conclude that both biochemical and regulatory redundancy and subfunctionalization of pgip genes are important for the adaptation of plants to pathogenic fungi and phytophagous insects.

Water, irrigation and plant diseases

Irrigation is a major husbandry tool, vital for world food production and security. The purpose of this review is twofold:- firstly drawing attention to the beneficial and deleterious aspects of irrigation resulting from interactions with the microbial world; secondly, forming a basis for encouraging further research and development. Irrigation is for example, a valuable component in the control of some soil borne pathogens such as Streptomyces scabies, the cause of potato common scab and Fusarium cubense, a cause of banana wilt. By contrast, applying irrigation encourages some foliar pathogens and factors such as splash dispersal of propagules and the retention of leaf wetness are important elements in the successful establishment of disease foci. Irrigation applied at low levels in the canopy directly towards the stem bases and root zones of plants also provides means encouraging disease development. Irrigation also offers means for the direct spread of microbes such as water borne moulds, Oomycetes, and plasmodial pathogens coming from populations present in the water supply. The presence of plant disease causing microbes in sources of irrigation has been associated with outbreaks of diseases such as clubroot (Plasmodiophora brassicae). Irrigation can be utilised as a means for applying agrochemicals, fungigation. The developing technologies of water restriction and root zone drying also have an impact on the success of disease causing organisms. This is an emerging technology and its interactions with benign and pathogenic microbes require consideration.

Fungi, mycotoxins and phytoalexin in peanut varieties, during plant growth in the field

The aim of the present study was to analyze the mycobiota, occurrence of mycotoxins (aflatoxins and cyclopiazonic acid), and production of phytoalexin (trans-resveratrol) in two peanut varieties (Runner IAC 886 and Caiapo) during plant growth in the field. Climatic factors (rainfall, relative humidity and temperature) and water activity were also evaluated. The results showed a predominance of Fusarium spp. in kernels and pods, followed by Penicillium spp. and Aspergillus flavus. Aflatoxins were detected in 20% and 10% of samples of the IAC 886 and Caiapo varieties, respectively. Analysis showed that 65% of kernel samples of the IAC 886 variety and 25% of the Caiapo variety were contaminated with cyclopiazonic acid. trans-Resveratrol was detected in 6.7% of kernel samples of the IAC 886 variety and in 20% of the Caiapo variety. However, trans-resveratrol was found in 73.3% of leaf samples in the two varieties studied. (C) 2011 Published by Elsevier Ltd.

Influence of macro- and micronutrient fertilization on fungal contamination and fumonisin production in corn grains

The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of nutrients (nitrogen, zinc and boron) on fungal growth and fumonisins production in corn samples obtained at the beginning of grain formation and at harvest. Three nitrogen doses were applied to the corn plants through soil in combination with three zinc doses and two boron doses during sowing. Mycological analysis of grains, using Dichloran Rose-Bengal Chloramphenicol Agar, collected at the beginning of formation demonstrated a fungal population predominantly of yeasts. Analysis of freshly harvested corn revealed a higher frequency of Penicillium spp. (72%) and F verticillioides (27%). High Performance Liquid Chromatography analysis revealed that 100% of grains were contaminated with fumonisins B, at levels ranging from 0.3 to 24.3 mg/kg and 93% contaminated with fumonisin B(2) at levels ranging from 0.05 to 5.42 mg/kg. Nitrogen (50 kg/ha) in combination with boron (0.5 kg/ha) resulted in an increased fumonisin B2 production. (c) 2007 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Distribution of fungi and aflatoxins in a stored peanut variety

The objective of the present study was to evaluate the mycoflora and occurrence of aflatoxins in stored peanut samples (hulls and kernels) from Tupa, State of Sao Paulo, Brazil. The samples were analyzed monthly over a period of one year. The results showed a predominance of Fusarium spp. (67.7% in hulls and 25.8% in kernels) and Aspergillus spp. (10.3% in hulls and 21.8% in kernels), and the presence of five other genera. The growth of Aspergillus flavus was mainly influenced by temperature and relative humidity. Analysis of hulls showed that 6.7% of the samples were contaminated with AFB(1) (mean levels 15-23.9 mu g/kg) and AFB(2) (mean levels = 3.3-5.6 mu g/kg); in kernels, 33.3% of the samples were contaminated with AFB(1) (mean levels 7.0-116 mu g/kg) and 28.3% were contaminated with AFB(2) (mean levels = 3.3-45.5 mu g/kg). Analysis of the toxigenic potential revealed that 93.8% of the A. flavus strains isolated were producers of AFB(1) and AFB(2). mu 2007 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Mycoflora and fumonisin contamination in Brazilian sorghum from sowing to harvest

BACKGROUND: The aim of this study was to characterise the mycoflora and the presence of fumonisin in sorghum grains, correlating the results with the environment and abiotic factors. RESULTS: Fifty samples (five collections of ten samples each) of sorghum were analysed. All samples were found to be contaminated with fungi, with higher frequencies of Cladosporium spp. (61.8%) and Helminthosporium spp. (33.4%). Fusarium verticillioides was isolated from 15.1% of the samples, with 38% of them being contaminated with fumonisin B(1) (FB(1)) at levels ranging from 50 to 368.78 ng g(-1). Regarding abiotic factors, temperature, water activity and rainfall showed a positive correlation with the frequency of F. verticillioides and FB(1) production. There was a significant positive correlation between relative air humidity and FB(1) production. The results obtained from sexual crosses between standard F mating tester strains and the isolated strains confirmed that the strains isolated were F. verticillioides. CONCLUSION: It can be concluded that the decrease in F. verticillioides and fumonisin contamination occurred owing to atypical climatic factors during the period of sorghum cultivation, when there was any occurrence of rain and the level of water activity of grains did not reach 0.58. (C) 2010 Society of Chemical Industry

Effects of gamma-radiation on the fungus Alternaria alternata in artificially inoculated cereal samples

The objective of this study was to evaluate the effects of different gamma-radiation doses on the growth of Alternaria alternata in artificially inoculated cereal samples. Seeds and grains were divided into four groups: Control Group (not irradiated), and Groups 1, 2 and 3, inoculated with an A. alternata spore suspension (1 x 10(6) spores/mL) and exposed to 2, 5 and 10 kGy, respectively. Serial dilutions of the samples were prepared and seeded on DRBC (dichloran rose bengal chloramphenicol agar) and DCMA (dichloran chloramphenicol malt extract agar) media, after which the number of colony-forming units per gram was determined in each group. In addition, fungal morphology after irradiation was analyzed by scanning electron microscopy (SEM). The results showed that ionizing radiation at a dose of 5 kGy was effective in reducing the growth of A. alternata. However, a dose of 10 kGy was necessary to inhibit fungal growth completely. SEM made it possible to visualize structural alterations induced by the different gamma-radiation doses used. (C) 2009 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Acute toxicity of a single gavage dose of fumonisin B(1) in rabbits

The aim of this study was to determine the clinical, pathological and mycotoxicological effects of oral administration of fumonisin B, (FBI) in rabbits. Eighteen rabbits were randomly assigned to two experimental groups: control group, 0 mg FB(1): fumonisin group. 31.5 mg FB(1)/kg body weight, corresponding to about 630 mg FB(1)/kg diet. Fumonisin administered as a single oral dose to rabbits resulted in acute toxicity, significantly interfering with body and liver weight. Serum biochemical analysis revealed a significant increase of total protein, alkaline phosphatase (AP), aspartate aminotransferase (AST), alanine aminotransferase (ALT), gamma-glutamyltransferase (GGT), urea and creatinine in the group receiving FBI compared to control animals, a finding characterizing hepatic and renal injury in this group. Urinary protein concentrations were markedly elevated at 12,24,48 and 72 h after dosing, although visible pathological abnormalities were not observed, probably because of rapid repair of the damage. FBI was detected in feces, with a maximum concentration at 24h after administration, indicating that the enterohepatic circulation is important in rabbits. FBI concentrations found in urine were low, with peak elimination at 12 h after intoxication. The highest FBI concentrations were observed in feces compared to urine and liver, demonstrating that feces are the main routes of excretion. (C) 2009 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.

Osmotin from Calotropis procera latex: New insights into structure and antifungal properties

This study aimed at investigating the structural properties and mechanisms of the antifungal action of CpOsm, a purified osmotin from Calotropis procera latex. Fluorescence and CD assays revealed that the CpOsm structure is highly stable, regardless of pH levels. Accordingly, CpOsm inhibited the spore germination of Fusarium solani in all pH ranges tested. The content of the secondary structure of CpOsm was estimated as follows: alpha-helix (20%), beta-sheet (33%), turned (19%) and unordered (28%). RMSD 1%. CpOsm was stable at up to 75 degrees C, and thermal denaturation (T(m)) was calculated to be 77.8 degrees C. This osmotin interacted with the negatively charged large unilamellar vesicles (LUVs) of 1-palmitoyl-2-oleoyl-sn-glycero-3-phospho-rac-1-glycerol (POPG), inducing vesicle permeabilization by the leakage of calcein. CpOsm induced the membrane permeabilization of spores and hyphae from Fusarium solani, allowing for propidium iodide uptake. These results show that CpOsm is a stable protein, and its antifungal activity involves membrane permeabilization, as property reported earlier for other osmotins and thaumatin-like proteins. (C) 2011 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Fungos anemófilos em Porto Alegre, RS.

O conhecimento dos fungos anemófilos em determinada cidade ou região é importante para o diagnóstico etiológico e o tratamento específico das manifestações alérgicas respiratórias. Várias técnicas quantitativas e qualitativas são preconizadas para coleta e identificação desses fungos na dependência do local estudado. Nesta pesquisa, sobre esporos de fungos do ar, foi utilizado o equipamento Rotorod Sampler®, que retira a amostra do ar através de um bastão de plástico preso a um motor elétrico que o faz girar rapidamente, sendo as partículas suspensas no ar recolhidas pelo bastão. As amostras foram coletadas uma vez por semana, durante 24 horas, correspondendo a um ciclo de coleta. Foram realizadas 52 coletas entre abril de 2000 e março de 2001. Os resultados mostraram prevalência de ascosporos (50,49%), Cladosporium (17,86%), Aspergillus/Penicillium (15,03%), basidiosporos (3,84%), rusts (3,82%), Helminthosporium (2,49%), Botrytis (1,22%), Alternaria (1,19%), smuts (0,90%), Curvularia (0,87%), Nigrospora (0,61%) e Fusarium (0,08%). Não foi possível identificar 1,59% dos esporos de fungos coletados no período. O maior número de esporos foi observado nos meses de verão e o menor, durante o outono. Utilizando provas in vivo e in vitro, avaliou-se a hipersensibilidade a fungos entre 39 pacientes atópicos sofrendo de rinite e ou asma brônquica. Os testes cutâneos identificaram sensibilização em 17,94% dos pacientes, enquanto as provas sorológicas caracterizaram presença de IgE específica em 12,82% dos casos avaliados. A detecção de significativo número de esporos de fungos no ar de Porto Alegre, com muitas espécies comprovadamente alergênicas, e os índices de sensibilização observados em indivíduos atópicos confirmam a importância do estudo dos fungos anemófilos nessa cidade, com vistas a aprimorar o diagnóstico e o manejo de pacientes com manifestações alérgicas respiratórias.

Fungos de pré e pós colheita e a qualidade de grãos de milho

O papel do milho na alimentação humana e animal é importante por causa da composição química e do valor nutritivo; por isso, é um dos cereais mais cultivados e consumidos no mundo. Uma das principais causas de danos à qualidade dos grãos é a infecção fúngica e a conseqüente contaminação por micotoxinas. Neste trabalho, foi identificado os efeitos do retardamento da colheita, do grau de umidade e do período de armazenamento dos grãos na ocorrência de fungos patogênicos e de grãos ardidos e a possível contaminação por micotoxinas na lavoura e durante o armazenamento, com o objetivo de caracterizar a influência dos fungos de pré e pós colheita na qualidade dos grãos de milho nas safras 98/99 e 99/00. A incidência de fungos patogênicos foi quantificada em 400 grãos e de grãos ardidos (GA), a percentagem de grãos com injúria mecânica visível (IMV) e de grãos normais (GN) em quatro repetições de 250 g de grãos. A contaminação por micotoxinas foi analisada por cromatografia de camada delgada e as características nutricionais foram analisadas por espectrometria de reflectância no infravermelho proximal. O retardamento da colheita gerou condições favoráveis para a elevação da incidência dos fungos das espécies Aspergillus spp., Cephalosporium spp., Fusarium graminearum e Penicillium spp. A incidência de GA se elevou enquanto os grãos apresentavam umidade acima de 20%. A incidência de Fusarium moniliforme foi reduzindo à medida que os grãos perdiam água. O percentual de grãos com IMV somados a incidência GA foi de 15,90% no silo de Lodi e de 15,78% na Cotrel. O retardamento de colheita influenciou na ocorrência de fungos, de GA e de micotoxinas na lavoura. As práticas de manejo das lavouras e a operação de colheita afetaram qualidade comercial dos grãos de milho e o armazenamento conservou as características nutricionais.

Aspectos epidemiológicos e de resistência à Ralstonia solanacearum na cultura da batata no Rio Grande do Sul

Plantas de batata (Solanum tuberosum L.) com sintomas de murcha bacteriana (MB) foram coletadas em 25 lavouras de 10 municípios de quatro regiões produtoras do Rio Grande do Sul (RS), de setembro a dezembro de 1999. Quatrocentos e noventa isolados de Ralstonia solanacearum foram obtidos e 96 e 4% identificados como biovares 1 e 2, respectivamente. A análise dos resultados da PCR-ERIC e BOX de 13 estirpes da biovar 1 e 72 da biovar 2 demonstrou baixa variabilidade genética. Através de RAPD foi possível associar local de origem do isolado com perfil eletroforético. Em outro experimento avaliou-se o comportamento de 14 cultivares e clones de batata cultivados nos períodos das safras de primavera de 1999 e 2000, em uma área naturalmente infestada com a biovar 2, em Caxias do Sul, RS. O número de plantas com sintomas foi registrado semanalmente. Os tubérculos produzidos por plantas assintomáticas foram coletados e submetidos a testes para detectar a presença de R. solanacearum. A área sob a curva de progresso da doença foi utilizada para comparar a resistência dos genótipos de batata à MB e o modelo logístico foi o que melhor se ajustou. A cultivar cruza 148 e o clone MB 03 mostraram-se como os mais resistentes, apresentando, no entanto, tubérculos com infecções latentes. As implicações da incidência de R. solanacearum em lavouras de batata e de sua variabilidade genética, assim como da resistência dos genótipos acompanhada de infecções latentes, no manejo integrado da MB no RS foram discutidas.

Biorremediação de antraceno, fenantreno e pireno em um argissolo

O antraceno, o fenantreno e o pireno são hidrocarbonetos aromáticos policíclicos (HAPs) que podem ser carcinogênicos e que não são degradados pela maioria dos microrganismos do solo. A biorremediação é uma estratégia para eliminação dos HAPs, que pode demandar a inoculação de microrganismos degradadores e a modificação das condições químicas e físicas do solo. O objetivo do presente estudo foi isolar, identificar e caracterizar microrganismos degradadores e mineralizadores de antraceno, fenantreno e pireno em meio mineral e no solo, assim como avaliar a influência do pH e da disponibilidade de água, N, P, Fe e S na biorremediação de um solo contaminado com antraceno. Seis amostras de solo de landfarming foram inoculadas individualmente a um solo contaminado em laboratório com antraceno. Após 176 dias, o solo com maior produção de C-CO2 foi utilizado para o enriquecimento em meio mineral mais antraceno. Os microrganismos foram isolados e identificados pelo seqüenciamento do gene do RNAr. A capacidade dos microrganismos em degradar os 3 HAPs no meio mineral e no solo foi avaliada por cromatografia gasosa. A mineralização de diferentes concentrações de antraceno, fenantreno e pireno no solo foi avaliada por respirometria, assim como o efeito de diferentes doses de N, P, S e Fe, de diferentes pH e umidades do solo na mineralização do antraceno. Isolou-se do solo de landfarming um consórcio microbiano composto por 6 bactérias, identificadas como Mycobacterium fortuitum, Bacillus cereus, Microbacterium sp., Gordonia polyisoprenivorans, Microbacteriaceae bacterium e Naphthaleneutilizing bacterium, e um fungo, Fusarium oxysporum. O consórcio microbiano degradou respectivamente 48, 67 e 22% do antraceno, fenantreno e pireno do meio mineral. No solo o consórcio degradou, em média, mais de 92% e mineralizou mais de 78% das diferentes concentrações destes 3 HAPs em 70 dias. As maiores mineralizações do antraceno ocorreram nos solos com as maiores umidades gravimétricas (12,5%) e pH (7,5). A adição de 100 kg ha-1 ou mais de nitrogênio no solo e a conseqüente redução da relação C:N para valores inferiores a 67:1 diminuíram a mineralização do antraceno no solo. O aumento da disponibilidade do fósforo, do ferro e do enxofre e a presença de amplas relações C:P (1076:1 a 50:1) e C:N:P (1076:16:1 a 50:1,3:1) no solo não influenciaram a mineralização do antraceno. Conclui-se que a seleção e a inoculação ao solo de microrganismos degradadores de HAPs, associado a modificação das condições ambientais, pode conduzir a um eficiente processo de biorremediação, onde a grande maioria dos HAPs é mineralizada em curto período de tempo.

Comunidades fúngicas endofítica, epifítica e rizosférica em diferentes ecossistemas

O presente trabalho teve por objetivo avaliar o efeito de três ecossistemas sobre, a ocorrência de fungos rizosféricos, endofíticos e epifíticos. As áreas de estudo estão localizadas em uma propriedade rural, situada na cidade de Venâncio Aires, RS. Os fungos endofíticos e epifíticos foram isolados de amostras de raízes de guajuvira, (Patagonula americana L.), coletadas na mata (área 1), de uva-do-japão (Hovenia dulcis Thunb.), na área intermediária (área 2) e de fumo ou de milho, na lavoura (área 3) e, os fungos rizosféricos isolados de solo coletado junto as raízes dos vegetais citados. As amostras foram coletadas nos meses de janeiro, maio, setembro e novembro de 2004 e 2005. Os fungos foram identificados segundo características morfológicas com auxílio de chaves de identificação. As áreas 2 e 3 foram mais similares com relação aos fungos rizosféricos e epifíticos, enquanto, que, as áreas 1 e 2 foram mais similares com relação aos fungos endofíticos. A diversidade dos fungos isolados das três áreas não diferiu ao longo dos dois anos de coleta. A presença de Fusarium spp., em vegetais sem sintomas de doença indica que, as mesmas podem ser raças avirulentas ou patógenos latentes em equilíbrio com o hospedeiro e o ambiente. A presença de fungos antagonistas, principalmente Trichoderma spp. também, são responsáveis por esse equilíbrio, o qual ocorre nas três áreas.