Assessing the role of sCYLD and Bcl-3 in immune regulation

CYLD is a deubiquitinating enzyme, which negatively regulates NF-κB signaling by removing Lys63-linked polyubiquitin chains from its substrates. In mice, there are two variants of CYLD: full-length CYLD (FL-CYLD) and its short splice variant sCYLD. sCYLD lacks the NEMO and TRAF2 binding sites and CYLDex7/8 mice, which have been generated in our laboratory, overexpress sCYLD in the absence of the full length transcript. In this thesis, we show that bone marrow-derived macrophages (BMDCs) overexpressing sCYLD display a hyperactive phenotype. They have increased levels of the inflammatory cytokines IL-6 and TNFα, have exaggerated stimulatory capacity and fail to induce tolerance in in vivo experiments. CYLDex7/8 BMDCs have increased levels of nuclear Bcl-3, which we could show to be directly induced by sCYLD expression. NF-κB signaling was markedly upregulated in CYLDex7/8 BMDCs.rnBcl-3 overexpressing BMDCs with normal CYLD expression, however, were not hyperactive, suggesting that Bcl-3 overexpression is not sufficient for causing the observed phenotype. Taken together we propose a model in which the exclusive overexpression of sCYLD with high nuclear levels of Bcl-3 in BMDCs is accompanied by an increased NF-κB activation, resulting in a hyperactive phenotype.rnWe further analyzed macrophages overexpressing sCYLD using the LysMcre CyldFL/FL strain, but could not detect differences in activation marker expression, cytokine secretion or iNOS production. LysMcre CyldFL/FL mice immunized with MOG35-55 peptide showed a more severe course of experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE), which could not be explained by enhanced levels of MHC class II on CNS-resident macrophages and microglia or increased T cell infiltration.rnMice overexpressing Bcl-3 in T cells develop spontaneous colitis. They have less peripheral memory/effector T cells and less Th1 cells, whereas Th17 numbers are normal. Naïve T cells overexpressing Bcl-3 show defects in in vitro differentiation to the Th1 or Th17 fate. CD4+ T cells overexpressing Bcl-3 show enhanced survival capacity in in vitro culture, but have a defect in proliferative capacity when stimulated in vitro or when adoptively transferred into lymphopenic hosts.

Role of αvβ3 – Integrin and TLR2 in the innate response to Herpes Simplex Virus infection and Delivery of retargeted oncolytic Herpes Simplex via carrier cells

In the first part of my thesis I studied the mechanism of initiation of the innate response to HSV-1. Innate immune response is the first line of defense set up by the cell to counteract pathogens infection and it is elicited by the activation of a number of membrane or intracellular receptors and sensors, collectively indicated as PRRs, Patter Recognition Receptors. We reported that the HSV pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMP) that activate Toll-like receptor 2 (TLR2) and lead to the initiation of innate response are the virion glycoproteins gH/gL and gB, which constitute the conserved fusion core apparatus across the Herpesvirus. Specifically gH/gL is sufficient to initiate a signaling cascade which leads to NF-κB activation. Then, by gain and loss-of-function approaches, we found that αvβ3-integrin is a sensor of and plays a crucial role in the innate defense against HSV-1. We showed that αvβ3-integrin signals through a pathway that concurs with TLR2, affects activation/induction of interferons type 1, NF-κB, and a polarized set of cytokines and receptors. Thus, we demonstrated that gH/gL is sufficient to induce IFN1 and NF-κB via this pathway. From these data, we proposed that αvβ3-integrin is considered a class of non-TLR pattern recognition receptors. In the second part of my thesis I studied the capacity of human mesenchymal stromal cells isolated by fetal membranes (FM-hMSCs) to be used as carrier cells for the delivery of retargeted R-LM249 virus. The use of systemically administrated carrier cells to deliver oncolytic viruses to tumoral targets is a promising strategy in oncolytic virotherapy. We observed that FM-hMSCs can be infected by R-LM249 and we optimized the infection condition; then we demonstrate that stromal cells sustain the replication of retargeted R-LM249 and spread it to target tumoral cells. From these preliminary data FM-hMSCs resulted suitable to be used as carrier cells

Strahlungsinduzierte Mukositis als Risiko der Raumfahrt : Modelluntersuchungen an Röntgen- und Schwerionen-bestrahlten organotypischen Mundschleimhaut-Modellen

Während ausgedehnter Weltraumflüge zum Mond und Mars wäre die Besatzung eines Raumschiffs dicht ionisierender Schwerionenstrahlung, der sogenannten kosmischen Strahlung, ausgesetzt. Da bei vielen Krebspatienten die orale Mukositis als eine gravierende Nebenwirkung bei der herkömmlichen Strahlentherapie auftritt, könnte diese Erkrankung ein medizinisches Problem während ausgedehnter Weltraumflüge darstellen. Allerdings liegen bislang keine Untersuchungen über eine mögliche Mukositis-induzierte Wirkung von Schwerionenstrahlung vor. Um das Risiko strahlungsinduzierter oraler Mukositis durch kosmische Strahlung abzuschätzen, wurden dreidimensionale organotypische Mundschleimhaut-Modelle 12C Schwerionen- bzw. Röntgenstrahlung ausgesetzt und nach definierten Inkubationszeiten kryokonserviert. Aus dem Material wurden Kryoschnitte gefertigt, mit denen anschließend histologische und immunhistologische Fluoreszenzfärbungen zum Nachweis von zum Beispiel Kompaktheitsverlust, Doppelstrangbrüchen der DNA und NF-κB-Aktivierung durchgeführt wurden. Die Ausschüttung von Tumornekrosefaktor α, Interleukin 1β, Interleukin 6 und Interleukin 8 wurde in Probenüberständen mittels ELISA analysiert. Das Hauptaugenmerk dieser Studie lag dabei auf den frühen durch Strahlung verursachten Effekten. rnIm Rahmen dieser Dissertation wurde ein dreidimensionales Mundschleimhaut-Modell etabliert, das verglichen mit humaner Mundschleimhaut viele organotypische Differenzierungsmarker und in vivo-ähnliche Reaktionen auf bestimmte Reize zeigte. Nach einer Bestrahlung mit schweren Kohlenstoffionen bzw. mit Röntgenstrahlung wurden strahlungsinduzierte Effekte auf mehreren Ebenen detektiert. Bereits 1 h nach Bestrahlung konnten dosisabhängig vermehrte Doppelstrangbrüche in der DNA detektiert werden, wobei bei gleicher Dosis Schwerionenstrahlung im Durchschnitt doppelt so viele DSB verursachte wie Röntgenstrahlung. Das Mundschleimhaut-Modell reagierte auf beide Strahlungsarten mit einer Aktivierung des Transkriptionsfaktors NF-κB p50, wobei Röntgenstrahlung diese Aktivierung früher induzierte als Schwerionen. Eine strahlungsinduzierte Aktivierung von NF-κB p65 wurde in den organotypischen Kulturen zu den untersuchten Zeitpunkten nicht beobachtet. Im Vergleich zu nicht bestrahlten Kulturen waren die Konzentrationen von Interleukin 6 und Interleukin 8 unabhängig von der Strahlungsqualität nach Bestrahlung signifikant erhöht. Interleukin-1β dagegen wurde nur nach Röntgenbestrahlung signifikant vermehrt ausgeschüttet. In Schwerionen-bestrahlten Proben wurden zwar tendenziell höhere Konzentrationen beobachtet, statistische Signifikanzen ergaben sich aber nicht. Die Analysen zur TNF-α- und IFN-γ-Ausschüttung in bestrahlten organotypischen Kulturen ergaben innerhalb des gewählten Beobachtungszeitraums von 48 h keine strahlungsinduzierten Effekte. Bei den Untersuchungen der Proliferation in den Zellen der bestrahlten organotypischen Kulturen wurde bereits 24 h nach Röntgenstrahlung und 3 Tage nach Schwerionenstrahlung eine deutliche verminderte Proliferation beobachtet. Des Weiteren zeigte das Mundschleimhaut-Modell unabhängig von Strahlungsqualitäten einen eindeutigen Verlust in der Zellintegrität und daraus resultierenden Kompaktheitsverlust des Gewebes, was in der in vivo-Situation wahrscheinlich einer Gewebedegeneration entspricht. rnNach Bestrahlung mit sowohl Röntgenstrahlung als auch schweren Ionen wurden im gewählten Mukosa-Modell innerhalb von 48 h nach Behandlung strahlungsinduzierte proinflammatorische Marker eindeutig und reproduzierbar detektiert. Dies deutet darauf hin, dass während langer extraterrestrischer Expeditionen das Risiko der oralen Mukositis einkalkuliert und mit den daraus folgenden Konsequenzen gerechnet werden muss.rn

Der Einfluss von Chemotherapeutika mit Hypoxie-induzierbarer Faktor (HIF)-modulierendem Potential sowie eines Verlustes des HIF-Regulators von Hippel-Lindau (VHL) auf den Phänotyp und die Funktion dendritischer Zellen

Der Transkriptionsfaktor Hypoxie-induzierbarer Faktor (HIF) gibt dem Organismus die Möglichkeit, sich auf zellulärer Ebene an unterschiedliche Sauerstoffverhältnisse anzupassen. Vor allem Tumorzellen weisen aufgrund ihres ungeregelten Wachstums und der daraus resultierenden unzureichenden Durchblutung (hypoxisches Milieu) eine erhöhte HIF-Expression auf. Die erhöhte HIF-Expression stellt somit ein interessantes Ziel in der Tumortherapie dar. Dendritische Zellen (DCs) besitzen eine bedeutende Rolle in der Generierung und Modulierung von Antitumor-Immunantworten. Aus diesem Grund ist es überaus wichtig zu wissen, welche Effekte Antitumor-Agenzien, im Besonderen HIF-Inhibitoren, auf DCs und somit auch auf die Generierung von adäquaten Immunantworten besitzen.rnIm ersten Teil dieser Arbeit wurde aus diesem Grund der Einfluss der Antitumor-Agenzien Geldanamycin (GA) und Topotecan (TPT) auf den Phänotyp und die Funktion von DCs untersucht. Hierfür wurden Monozyten aus humanen, mononukleären, peripheren Blutzellen isoliert und unter DC-differenzierenden Konditionen kultiviert. Diese immaturen monozytenabgeleiteten DCs (Mo-DCs) wurden mithilfe eines Reifungscocktails ausgereift. Die Applikation der Antitumor-Agenzien erfolgte während der Differenzierungs- bzw. Ausreifungsphase. Abhängig vom Reifungsgrad der Mo-DCs konnte ein differentieller Einfluss von GA bzw. TPT auf die DC-Aktivierung beobachtet werden. Eine Behandlung von unstimulierten Mo-DCs mit GA resultierte in einer partiellen DC-Aktivierung basierend auf einem noch unbekannten Mechanismus. Ebenso führte eine Behandlung von unstimulierten Mo-DCs mit TPT zu einer funktionellen Aktivierung der DCs, die mit einer vermehrten AKT-Expression korrelierte. Die jeweilige Koapplikation der Antitumor-Agenzien mit dem DC-Reifungscocktail führte zu einer reduzierten DC-Aktivierung, die sich in einer verminderten NF-κB-Aktivierung, einer verringerten Oberflächenexpression der getesteten kostimulatorischen Moleküle, einer verringerten Migrationsfähigkeit und einem reduzierten Zellstimulierungspotential widerspiegelte.rnDie autosomal dominant vererbte Tumorerkrankung von Hippel-Lindau (VHL) wird häufig durch genetische Mutationen des als HIF-Negativregulator fungierenden VHL-Gens hervorgerufen. Patienten, die an dem VHL-Syndrom erkrankt sind, weisen oft benigne oder maligne Tumore und Zysten in den verschiedensten Organsystemen auf. Wie schon zuvor erwähnt, besitzen DCs eine essentielle Rolle in der Initiierung und Aufrechterhaltung von Antitumor-Immunantworten. Deshalb wurde im zweiten Abschnitt der vorliegenden Arbeit untersucht, inwieweit ein partieller Verlust von VHL Auswirkungen auf die Ausprägung desrnPhänotyps und der Funktion von DCs hat. Mittels Cre/lox-Technologie wurden transgene Mäuse mit einem heterozygoten Verlust von Exon 1 bzw. Exon 2 des VHL-Gens generiert. Aus diesen Mäusen wurden Knochenmarkszellen isoliert und unter DC-differenzierenden Konditionen kultiviert. Die immaturen knochenmarkabgeleiteten DCs (BM-DCs) wurden mit LPS ausgereift. Weder der heterozygote Verlust von Exon 1 noch von Exon 2 des VHL-Gens bewirkte eine Veränderung der Oberflächenmarkerexpression, der in vitro-Migrations- undrnEndozytosekapazität, sowie der allogenen T-Zellstimulierungskapazität. Allerdings zeigten Mäuse mit einem partiellen Verlust von Exon 2 im Vergleich zu Kontrollmäusen nach Immunisierung und Provokation mit dem Modellallergen OVA eine verminderte Atemwegshyperreaktion, die möglicherweise auf die beobachtete Abnahme der Migrationsfähigkeit in vivo und die verminderte OVA-spezifische T-Zellstimulierungskapazität der DCs zurückzuführen ist.

Inhibition of tissue transglutaminase sensitizes TRAIL-resistant lung cancer cells through upregulation of death receptor 5

Tissue transglutaminase (TG2) is implicated in cellular processes such as apoptosis and cell migration. Its acyl transferase activity cross-links certain proteins, among them transcription factors were described. We show here that the TG2 inhibitor KCC009 reversed resistance to tumor necrosis factor-related apoptosis-inducing factor (TRAIL) in lung cancer cells. Sensitization required upregulation of death receptor 5 (DR5) but not of death receptor 4. Upregulation of DR5 involved the first intron of the DR5 gene albeit it was independent from p53 and nuclear factor kappa B. In conclusion, inhibition of tissue transglutaminase provides an interesting strategy for sensitization to TRAIL-induced apoptosis in p53-deficient lung cancer cells.

Immunohistochemical localization of osteoclastogenic cell mediators in feline tooth resorption and healthy teeth

Tooth resorption is among the most common and most challenging problems in feline dentistry It is a progressive disease eventually leading to tooth loss and often root replacement. The etiology of moth resorption remains obscure and to date no effective therapeutic approach is known. The present study is aimed at assessing the reliability of radiographic imaging and addressing the possible involvement of receptor activator of NF kappa B (RANK), its ligand (RANKL), and osteoprotegerin (OPG) in the process of tooth resorption. Teeth from 8 cats were investigated by means of radiographs and paraffin sections followed by immunolabeling. Six cats were diagnosed with tooth resorption based on histopathologic and radiographic findings. Samples were classified according to a four-stage diagnostic system. Radiologic assessment of tooth resorption correlated very strongly with histopathologic findings. Tooth resorption was accompanied by a strong staining with all three antibodies used, especially with anti-RANK and anti-RANKL antibodies. The presence of OPG and RANKL at the resorption site is indicative of repair attempts by fibroblasts and stromal cells. These findings should be extended by further investigations in order to elucidate the pathophysiologic processes underlying tooth resorption that might lead to prophylactic and/or therapeutic measures. J Vet Dent 27(2); 75 - 83, 2010

Impact of Bone Harvesting Techniques on Cell Viability and the Release of Growth Factors of Autografts

Background: Autogenous bone grafts obtained by different harvesting techniques behave differently during the process of graft consolidation; the underlying reasons are however not fully understood. One theory is that harvesting techniques have an impact on the number and activity of the transplanted cells which contribute to the process of graft consolidation. Materials and Methods: To test this assumption, porcine bone grafts were harvested with four different surgical procedures: bone mill, piezosurgery, bone drilling (bone slurry), and bone scraper. After determining cell viability, the release of molecules affecting bone formation and resorption was assessed by reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction and immunoassay. The mitogenic and osteogenic activity of the conditioned media was evaluated in a bioassay with isolated bone cells. Results: Cell viability and the release of molecules affecting bone formation were higher in samples harvested by bone mill and bone scraper when compared with samples prepared by bone drilling and piezosurgery. The harvesting procedure also affected gene expression, for example, bone mill and bone scraper samples revealed significantly higher expression of growth factors such as bone morphogenetic protein-2 and vascular endothelial growth factor compared with the two other modalities. Receptor activator of nuclear factor kappa B ligand expression was lowest in bone scraper samples. Conclusion: These data can provide a scientific basis to better understand the impact of harvesting techniques on the number and activity of transplanted cells, which might contribute to the therapeutic outcome of the augmentation procedure.

Ablation of the tumor suppressor histidine triad nucleotide binding protein 1 is protective against hepatic ischemia/reperfusion injury

The identification of cellular pathways capable of limiting ischemia/reperfusion (I/R) injury remains a frontier in medicine, and its clinical relevance is urgent. Histidine triad nucleotide binding protein 1 (HINT1) is a tumor suppressor that influences apoptosis. Because apoptotic pathways are a feature of I/R injury, we asked whether Hint1 influences hepatic I/R injury. Hint1(-/-) and C57BL/6 mice were subjected to 70% liver ischemia followed by reperfusion for 3 or 24 hours or to a sham operation. The serum aminotransferase levels, histological lesions, apoptosis, reactive oxygen species, and expression of B cell lymphoma 2-associated X protein (Bax), heme oxygenase 1 (HO-1), interleukin-6 (IL-6), IL-10, tumor necrosis factor-a, Src, nuclear factor kappa B (p65/RelA), and c-Jun were quantified. The responses to toll-like receptor ligands and nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate oxidase activity in Kupffer cells were compared in Hint1(-/-) mice and C57BL/6 mice. After I/R, the levels of serum aminotransferases, parenchymal necrosis, and hepatocellular apoptosis were significantly lower in Hint1(-/-) mice versus control mice. Furthermore, Bax expression decreased more than 2-fold in Hint1(-/-) mice, and the increases in reactive oxygen species and HO-1 expression that were evident in wild-type mice after I/R were absent in Hint1(-/-) mice. The phosphorylation of Src and the nuclear translocation of p65 were increased in Hint1(-/-) mice, whereas the nuclear expression of phosphorylated c-Jun was decreased. The levels of the protective cytokines IL-6 and IL-10 were increased in Hint1(-/-) mice. These effects increased survival after I/R in mice lacking Hint1. Hint1(-/-) Kupffer cells were less activated than control cells after stimulation with lipopolysaccharides. CONCLUSION: The Hint1 protein influences the course of I/R injury, and its ablation in Kupffer cells may limit the extent of the injury.

The ubiquitin ligase XIAP recruits LUBAC for NOD2 signaling in inflammation and innate immunity

Nucleotide-binding and oligomerization domain (NOD)-like receptors constitute a first line of defense against invading bacteria. X-linked Inhibitor of Apoptosis (XIAP) is implicated in the control of bacterial infections, and mutations in XIAP are causally linked to immunodeficiency in X-linked lymphoproliferative syndrome type-2 (XLP-2). Here, we demonstrate that the RING domain of XIAP is essential for NOD2 signaling and that XIAP contributes to exacerbation of inflammation-induced hepatitis in experimental mice. We find that XIAP ubiquitylates RIPK2 and recruits the linear ubiquitin chain assembly complex (LUBAC) to NOD2. We further show that LUBAC activity is required for efficient NF-κB activation and secretion of proinflammatory cytokines after NOD2 stimulation. Remarkably, XLP-2-derived XIAP variants have impaired ubiquitin ligase activity, fail to ubiquitylate RIPK2, and cannot facilitate NOD2 signaling. We conclude that XIAP and LUBAC constitute essential ubiquitin ligases in NOD2-mediated inflammatory signaling and propose that deregulation of NOD2 signaling contributes to XLP-2 pathogenesis.

Geographic analysis of RKIP expression and its clinical relevance in colorectal cancer

BACKGROUND This study evaluates the geographic expression pattern of Raf-1 Kinase Inhibitor Protein (RKIP) in colorectal cancer (CRC) in correlation with clinicopathological and molecular features, markers of epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) and survival outcome. METHODS Whole-tissue sections of 220 well-characterised CRCs were immunostained for RKIP. NF-κB and E-Cadherin expression was assessed using a matched multi-punch tissue microarray. Analysis of mismatch repair (MMR) protein expression, B-Raf and KRAS mutations was performed. RKIP expression in normal mucosa, tumour centre, invasion front and tumour buds was each assessed for clinical relevance. RESULTS RKIP was diffusely expressed in normal mucosa and progressively lost towards tumour centre and front (P<0.0001). Only 0.9% of tumour buds were RKIP-positive. In the tumour centre, RKIP deficiency predicted metastatic disease (P=0.0307), vascular invasion (P=0.0506), tumour budding (P=0.0112) and an invasive border configuration (P=0.0084). Loss of RKIP correlated with NF-κB activation (P=0.0002) and loss of E-Cadherin (P<0.0001). Absence of RKIP was more common in MMR-deficient cancers (P=0.0191), while no impact of KRAS and B-Raf mutation was observed. RKIP in the tumour centre was identified as a strong prognostic indicator (HR (95% CI): 2.13 (1.27-3.56); P=0.0042) independently of TNM classification and therapy (P=0.0474). CONCLUSION The clinical relevance of RKIP expression as an independent prognostic factor is restricted to the tumour centre. Loss of RKIP predicts features of EMT and correlates with frequent distant metastasis.

Ketamine-induced hepatoprotection: the role of heme oxygenase-1.

Lipopolysaccharide (LPS) causes hepatic injury that is mediated, in part, by upregulation of inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) and cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2). Ketamine has been shown to prevent these effects. Because upregulation of heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1) has hepatoprotective effects, as does carbon monoxide (CO), an end product of the HO-1 catalytic reaction, we examined the effects of HO-1 inhibition on ketamine-induced hepatoprotection and assessed whether CO could attenuate LPS-induced hepatic injury. One group of rats received ketamine (70 mg/kg ip) or saline concurrently with either the HO-1 inhibitor tin protoporphyrin IX (50 micromol/kg ip) or saline. Another group of rats received inhalational CO (250 ppm over 1 h) or room air. All rats were given LPS (20 mg/kg ip) or saline 1 h later and euthanized 5 h after LPS or saline. Liver was collected for iNOS, COX-2, and HO-1 (Western blot), NF-kappaB and PPAR-gamma analysis (EMSA), and iNOS and COX-2 mRNA analysis (RT-PCR). Serum was collected to measure alanine aminotransferase as an index of hepatocellular injury. HO-1 inhibition attenuated ketamine-induced hepatoprotection and downregulation of iNOS and COX-2 protein. CO prevented LPS-induced hepatic injury and upregulation of iNOS and COX-2 proteins. Although CO abolished the ability of LPS to diminish PPAR-gamma activity, it enhanced NF-kappaB activity. These data suggest that the hepatoprotective effects of ketamine are mediated primarily by HO-1 and its end product CO.

Sp1 trans-activates the murine H(+)-K(+)-ATPase alpha(2)-subunit gene.

The H(+)-K(+)-ATPase alpha(2) (HKalpha2) gene of the renal collecting duct and distal colon plays a central role in potassium and acid-base homeostasis, yet its transcriptional control remains poorly characterized. We previously demonstrated that the proximal 177 bp of its 5'-flanking region confers basal transcriptional activity in murine inner medullary collecting duct (mIMCD3) cells and that NF-kappaB and CREB-1 bind this region to alter transcription. In the present study, we sought to determine whether the -144/-135 Sp element influences basal HKalpha2 gene transcription in these cells. Electrophoretic mobility shift and supershift assays using probes for -154/-127 revealed Sp1-containing DNA-protein complexes in nuclear extracts of mIMCD3 cells. Chromatin immunoprecipitation (ChIP) assays demonstrated that Sp1, but not Sp3, binds to this promoter region of the HKalpha2 gene in mIMCD3 cells in vivo. HKalpha2 minimal promoter-luciferase constructs with point mutations in the -144/-135 Sp element exhibited much lower activity than the wild-type promoter in transient transfection assays. Overexpression of Sp1, but not Sp3, trans-activated an HKalpha2 proximal promoter-luciferase construct in mIMCD3 cells as well as in SL2 insect cells, which lack Sp factors. Conversely, small interfering RNA knockdown of Sp1 inhibited endogenous HKalpha2 mRNA expression, and binding of Sp1 to chromatin associated with the proximal HKalpha2 promoter without altering the binding or regulatory influence of NF-kappaB p65 or CREB-1 on the proximal HKalpha2 promoter. We conclude that Sp1 plays an important and positive role in controlling basal HKalpha2 gene expression in mIMCD3 cells in vivo and in vitro.

THE ROLE OF RECEPTOR TYROSINE KINASE AXL IN PANCREATIC DUCTAL ADENOCARCINOMA AND ITS REGULATION BY HEMATOPOIETIC PROGENITOR KINASE 1

Pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDA) is one of the most aggressive malignancies with less than 5% of five year survival rate. New molecular markers and new therapeutic targets are urgently needed for patients with PDA. Oncogenic receptor tyrosine kinase Axl has been reported to be overexpressed in many types of human malignancies, including diffuse glioma, melanoma, osteosarcoma, and carcinomas of lung, colon, prostate, breast, ovary, esophagus, stomach, and kidney. However, the expression and functions of Axl in PDA are unclear. We hypothesized that Axl contributes to the development and progression of PDA. We examined Axl expression in 54 human PDA samples and their paired benign pancreatic tissue by immunohistochemistry, we found that Axl was overexpressed in 70% of stage II PDAs, but only 22% of benign ducts (P=0.0001). Axl overexpression was associated with higher frequencies of distant metastasis and was an independent prognostic factor for both poor overall and recurrence-free survivals in patients with stage II PDA (p = 0.03 and 0.04). Axl silencing by shRNA in pancreatic cancer cell lines, panc-28 and Panc-1, decreased tumor cell migration and invasion and sensitized PDA cells to apoptosis stimuli such as γ-irradiation and serum starvation. In addition, we found that Axl-mediated Akt and NF-κB activation and up regulation of MMP2 were involved in the invasion, migration and survival of PDA cells. Thus, we demonstrate that Axl plays an important role in the development and progression of PDA. Targeting Axl signaling pathway may represent a new approach for the treatment of PDA. To understand the molecular mechanisms of Axl overexpression in PDA, we found that Axl expression was down-regulated by hematopoietic progenitor kinase 1 (HPK1), a newly identified tumor suppressor in PDA. HPK1 is lost in over 95% of PDAs. Restoration of HPK1 in PDA cells down-regulated Axl expression. HPK1-mediated Axl degradation was inhibited by leupeptin, baflomycin A1, and monensin, suggesting that HPK1-mediated Axl degradation was through endocytosis-lysosome pathway. HPK1 interacted with and phosphorylated dynamin, a critical component of endocytosis pathway. Overexpression of dominant negative form of dynamin blocked the HPK1-mediated Axl degradation. Therefore we concluded that HPK1-mediated Axl degradation was through endocytosis-lysosome pathway and loss of HPK1 expression may contribute to Axl overexpression in PDAs.

Genetic and microbial factors modulating the ubiquitin proteasome system in inflammatory bowel disease

OBJECTIVE: Altered microbiota composition, changes in immune responses and impaired intestinal barrier functions are observed in IBD. Most of these features are controlled by proteases and their inhibitors to maintain gut homeostasis. Unrestrained or excessive proteolysis can lead to pathological gastrointestinal conditions. The aim was to validate the identified protease IBD candidates from a previously performed systematic review through a genetic association study and functional follow-up. DESIGN: We performed a genetic association study in a large multicentre cohort of patients with Crohn's disease (CD) and UC from five European IBD referral centres in a total of 2320 CD patients, 2112 UC patients and 1796 healthy controls. Subsequently, we did an extensive functional assessment of the candidate genes to explore their causality in IBD pathogenesis. RESULTS: Ten single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in four genes were significantly associated with CD: CYLD, USP40, APEH and USP3. CYLD was the most significant gene with the intronically located rs12324931 the strongest associated SNP (pFDR=1.74e-17, OR=2.24 (1.83 to 2.74)). Five SNPs in four genes were significantly associated with UC: USP40, APEH, DAG1 and USP3. CYLD, as well as some of the other associated genes, is part of the ubiquitin proteasome system (UPS). We therefore determined if the IBD-associated adherent-invasive Escherichia coli (AIEC) can modulate the UPS functioning. Infection of intestinal epithelial cells with the AIEC LF82 reference strain modulated the UPS turnover by reducing poly-ubiquitin conjugate accumulation, increasing 26S proteasome activities and decreasing protein levels of the NF-κB regulator CYLD. This resulted in IκB-α degradation and NF-κB activation. This activity was very important for the pathogenicity of AIEC since decreased CYLD resulted in increased ability of AIEC LF82 to replicate intracellularly. CONCLUSIONS: Our results reveal the UPS, and CYLD specifically, as an important contributor to IBD pathogenesis, which is favoured by both genetic and microbial factors.

TGF-βRI kinase activity mediates Emdogain-stimulated in vitro osteoclastogenesis.

OBJECTIVES Emdogain, containing an extract of fetal porcine enamel matrix proteins, is a potent stimulator of in vitro osteoclastogenesis. The underlying molecular mechanisms are, however, unclear. MATERIAL AND METHODS Here, we have addressed the role of transforming growth factor-beta receptor type 1 (TGF-βRI) kinase activity on osteoclastogenesis in murine bone marrow cultures. RESULTS Inhibition of TGF-βRI kinase activity with SB431542 abolished the effect of Emdogain on osteoclastogenesis induced by receptor activator of nuclear factor kappa-B ligand or tumor necrosis factor-alpha. SB431542 also suppressed the Emdogain-mediated increase of OSCAR, a co-stimulatory protein, and dendritic cell-specific transmembrane protein and Atp6v0d2, the latter two being involved in cell fusion. Similar to transforming growth factor-beta1 (TGF-β), Emdogain could not compensate for the inhibition of IL-4 and IFNγ on osteoclast formation. When using the murine macrophage cell line RAW246.7, SB431542 and the smad-3 inhibitor SIS3 blocked Emdogain-stimulated expression of the transcription factor NFATc1. CONCLUSIONS Taken together, the data suggest that TGF-βRI kinase activity is necessary to mediate in vitro effects of Emdogain on osteoclastogenesis. CLINICAL RELEVANCE Based on these in vitro data, we can speculate that at least part of the clinical effects of Emdogain on osteoclastogenesis is mediated via TGF-β signaling.