Non-destructive measurements of the optical properties of apples by means of time-resolved reflectance

Time-resolved reflectance is proposed and effectively used for the nondestructive measurement of the optical properties in apples. The technique is based on the detection of the temporal dispersion of a short laser pulse injected into the probed medium. The time-distribution of re-emitted photons interpreted with a solution of the Diffusion equation yields the mean values of the absorption and reduced scattering coefficients of the medium. The proposed technique proved valuable for the measurement of the absorption and scattering spectra of different varieties of apples. No major variations were observed in the experimental data when the fruit was peeled, proving that the measured optical properties are referred to the pulp. The depth of probed volume was determined to be about 2 cm. Finally, the technique proved capable to follow the change in chlorophyll absorption during storage.

Non-destructive measurements of the optical properties of apples by means of time-resolved reflectance

Time-resolved reflectance is proposed and effectively used for the nondestructive measurement of the optical properties in apples. The technique is based on the detection of the temporal dispersion of a short laser pulse injected into the probed medium. The time-distribution of re-emitted photons interpreted with a solution of the Diffusion equation yields the mean values of the absorption and reduced scattering coefficients of the medium. The proposed technique proved valuable for the measurement of the absorption and scattering spectra of different varieties of apples. No major variations were observed in the experimental data when the fruit was peeled, proving that the measured optical properties are referred to the pulp. The depth of probed volume was determined to be about 2 cm. Finally, the technique proved capable to follow the change in chlorophyll absorption during storage.

Atmospheric modelling of tritium forms transport: review of capabilities and R&D needs for the assessment of fusion facilities environmental impact

One of the key scrutiny issues of new coming energy era would be the environmental impact of fusion facilities managing one kg of tritium. The potential change of committed dose regulatory limits together with the implementation of nuclear design principles (As Low as Reasonably achievable - ALARA -, Defense in Depth -D-i-D-) for fusion facilities could strongly impact on the cost of deployment of coming fusion technology. Accurate modeling of environmental tritium transport forms (HT, HTO) for the assessment of fusion facility dosimetric impact in Accidental case appears as of major interest. This paper considers different short-term releases of tritium forms (HT and HTO) to the atmosphere from a potential fusion reactor located in the Mediterranean Basin. This work models in detail the dispersion of tritium forms and dosimetric impact of selected environmental patterns both inland and in-sea using real topography and forecast meteorological data-fields (ECMWF/FLEXPART). We explore specific values of this ratio in different levels and we examine the influence of meteorological conditions in the HTO behavior for 24 hours. For this purpose we have used a tool which consists on a coupled Lagrangian ECMWF/FLEXPART model useful to follow real time releases of tritium at 10, 30 and 60 meters together with hourly observations of wind (and in some cases precipitations) to provide a short-range approximation of tritium cloud behavior. We have assessed inhalation doses. And also HTO/HT ratios in a representative set of cases during winter 2010 and spring 2011 for the 3 air levels.

Zone design of specific sizes using adaptive additively weighted voronoi diagrams

Territory or zone design processes entail partitioning a geographic space, organized as a set of areal units, into different regions or zones according to a specific set of criteria that are dependent on the application context. In most cases, the aim is to create zones of approximately equal sizes (zones with equal numbers of inhabitants, same average sales, etc.). However, some of the new applications that have emerged, particularly in the context of sustainable development policies, are aimed at defining zones of a predetermined, though not necessarily similar, size. In addition, the zones should be built around a given set of seeds. This type of partitioning has not been sufficiently researched; therefore, there are no known approaches for automated zone delimitation. This study proposes a new method based on a discrete version of the adaptive additively weighted Voronoi diagram that makes it possible to partition a two-dimensional space into zones of specific sizes, taking both the position and the weight of each seed into account. The method consists of repeatedly solving a traditional additively weighted Voronoi diagram, so that each seed?s weight is updated at every iteration. The zones are geographically connected using a metric based on the shortest path. Tests conducted on the extensive farming system of three municipalities in Castile-La Mancha (Spain) have established that the proposed heuristic procedure is valid for solving this type of partitioning problem. Nevertheless, these tests confirmed that the given seed position determines the spatial configuration the method must solve and this may have a great impact on the resulting partition.

Mechanical behavior of tungsten-vanadium-lanthana alloys as function of temperature

The mechanical behavior of three tungsten (W) alloys with vanadium (V) and lanthana (La2O3) additions (W–4%V, W–1%La2O3, W–4%V–1%La2O3) processed by hot isostatic pressing (HIP) have been compared with pure-W to analyze the influence of the dopants. Mechanical characterization was performed by three point bending (TPB) tests in an oxidizing air atmosphere and temperature range between 77 (immersion tests in liquid nitrogen) and 1273 K, through which the fracture toughness, flexural strength, and yield strength as function of temperature were obtained. Results show that the V and La2O3 additions improve the mechanical properties and oxidation behavior, respectively. Furthermore, a synergistic effect of both dopants results in an extraordinary increase of the flexure strength, fracture toughness and resistance to oxidation compared to pure-W, especially at higher temperatures. In addition, a new experimental method was developed to obtain a very small notch tip radius (around 5–7 μm) and much more similar to a crack through the use of a new machined notch. The fracture toughness results were lower than those obtained with traditional machining of the notch, which can be explained with electron microscopy, observations of deformation in the rear part of the notch tip. Finally, scanning electron microscopy (SEM) examination of the microstructure and fracture surfaces was used to determine and analyze the relationship between the macroscopic mechanical properties and the micromechanisms of failure involved, depending on the temperature and the dispersion of the alloy.

Opportunities and challenges in the use of inorganic fullerene-like nanoparticles to produce advanced polymer nanocomposites

Polymer/inorganic nanoparticle nanocomposites have garnered considerable academic and industrial interest over recent decades in the development of advanced materials for a wide range of applications. In this respect, the dispersion of so-called inorganic fullerene-like (IF) nanoparticles, e.g., tungsten disulfide (IF-WS2) or molybdenum disulfide (IF-MoS2), into polymeric matrices is emerging as a new strategy. The surprising properties of these layered metal dichalcogenides such as high impact resistance and superior tribological behavior, attributed to their nanoscale size and hollow quasi-spherical shape, open up a wide variety of opportunities for applications of these inorganic compounds. The present work presents a detailed overview on research in the area of IF-based polymer nanocomposites, with special emphasis on the use of IF-WS2 nanoparticles as environmentally friendly reinforcing fillers. The incorporation of IF particles has been shown to be efficient for improving thermal, mechanical and tribological properties of various thermoplastic polymers, such as polypropylene, nylon-6, poly(phenylene sulfide), poly(ether ether ketone), where nanocomposites were fabricated by simple melt-processing routes without the need for modifiers or surfactants. This new family of nanocomposites exhibits similar or enhanced performance when compared with nanocomposites that incorporate carbon nanotubes, carbon nanofibers or nanoclays, but are substantially more cost-effective, efficient and environmentally satisfactory. Most recently, innovative approaches have been described that exploit synergistic effects to produce new materials with enhanced properties, including the combined use of micro- and nanoparticles such as IF-WS2/nucleating agent or IF-WS2/carbon fiber, as well as dual nanoparticle systems such as SWCNT/IF-WS2 where each nanoparticle has different characteristics. The structure–property relationships of these nanocomposites are discussed and potential applications proposed ranging from medicine to the aerospace, automotive and electronics industries.

Census, reproductive biology, and germination of Astragalus gines-lopezii (Fabaceae), a narrow and endangered endemic species of SW Spain

Astragalus gines-lopezii Talavera, Podlech, Devesa & F.M.Vázquez (Fabaceae) is a threatened endemic species with a distribution restricted to a very small area in Badajoz Province (Extremadura Region, SW Spain) and only 2 populations are known. This species was catalogued in the ?Endangered? category in the 2008 Red List and the 2010 Threatened Spanish Vascular Flora List. Despite its status as an endangered species, at present very little is known about the distribution, census, and reproductive biology of this species. In this study we have carried out an exhaustive census of A. gines-lopezii , and we have evaluated the production of flowers, fruits, and seeds and the existence or not of intra- and interpopulation variability in seed germination. Results have highlighted the high reproductive capacity of this species on the basis of a high production of flowers, fruits, and seeds. Mechanical scarification of seeds was effective for increasing germination. Thus, initial germination (22%?60%) was increased to 97%?99% when seeds were rubbed with sandpapers. A high intra- and interpopulation variability in seed germination was found in this species. A. gines-lopezii produces seeds with different degrees of physical dormancy, varying this grade among different individuals within a population.

Habitat management for conservation of pollinators in agro-ecosystems of Central Spain

La gestión de hábitat orientada a la conservación de polinizadores en los agro-ecosistemas requiere una selección de especies vegetales atendiendo fundamentalmente a dos criterios: i) el potencial atractivo de sus flores a los polinizadores; y ii) la simplicidad en su manejo agronómico. Además de estas premisas, es necesario considerar la capacidad invasora de estas especies vegetales, debido a que algunas de las más atractivas pueden resultar invasoras en determinados agro-ecosistemas. Por lo tanto, es preciso determinar qué especies vegetales son las más indicadas para ser implementadas en cada agro-ecosistema. En la presente tesis doctoral se plantea la búsqueda de las especies vegetales adecuadas para atraer polinizadores en los agro-ecosistemas del centro de España. En una primera aproximación, se ha evaluado la atracción y expansión espacial (potencial invasivo) de seis plantas perennes de la familia Lamiaceae (aromáticas), elegidas por ser nativas de la región mediterránea. La elección de las especies vegetales se ha llevado a cabo con el fin de crear márgenes funcionales basados en la mezcla de especies vegetales con distintos periodos de floración, de modo que prolonguen la disponibilidad de recursos florales en el tiempo. Tras un primer año dedicado al establecimiento de las especies aromáticas, en los dos años siguientes se ha estudiado la atracción individual y combinada de las especies vegetales sobre los polinizadores, y como ésta se ve afectada por la densidad y la morfología floral, utilizando para ello un diseño experimental en bloques al azar. Los resultados de este estudio han puesto de manifiesto que la morfología floral no tuvo influencia sobre la atracción de las especies vegetales, pero si la densidad floral, puesto que las especies vegetales con mayor densidad de flores (Nepeta tuberosa e Hyssopus officinalis) han mostrado mayor atracción a polinizadores. Cabe destacar que de las seis especies consideradas, dos especies de verano (Melissa officinalis y Thymbra capitata) no han contribuido de forma efectiva a la atracción de la mezcla hacia los polinizadores, mostrando una reducción significativa de este parámetro respecto a las otras especies aromáticas a lo largo del verano. Se ha observado que ninguna de las especies aromáticas evaluadas ha mostrado tendencia invasora a lo largo del estudio. En base a estos resultados, se puede concluir que entre las especies aromáticas estudiadas, N. tuberosa, H. officinalis y Salvia verbenaca son las que ofrecen mayor potencial para ser utilizadas en la conservación de polinizadores. De forma similar al caso de las plantas aromáticas, se ha llevado a cabo una segunda experimentación que incluía doce plantas anuales con floración de primavera, en la que se evaluó la atracción a polinizadores y su comportamiento agronómico. Este estudio con especies herbáceas se ha prolongado durante dos años, utilizando un diseño experimental de bloques aleatorios. Las variables analizadas fueron: el atractivo de las distintas especies vegetales a los polinizadores, su eficiencia de atracción (calculada como una combinación de la duración de la floración y las visitas de insectos), su respuesta a dos tipos de manejo agronómico (cultivo en mezcla frente a monocultivo; laboreo frente a no-laboreo) y su potencial invasivo. Los resultados de esta segunda experimentación han mostrado que las flores de Borago officinalis, Echium plantagineum, Phacelia tanacetifolia y Diplotaxis tenuifolia son atractivas a las abejas, mientras que las flores de Calendula arvensis, Coriandrum sativum, D. tenuifolia y Lobularia maritima son atractivas a los sírfidos. Con independencia del tipo de polinizadores atraídos por cada especie vegetal, se ha observado una mayor eficiencia de atracción en parcelas con monocultivo de D. tenuifolia respecto a las parcelas donde se cultivó una mezcla de especies herbáceas, si bien en estas últimas se observó mayor eficiencia de atracción que en la mayoría de parcelas mono-específicas. Respecto al potencial invasivo de las especies herbáceas, a pesar de que algunas de las más atractivas a polinizadores (P. tanacetifolia and C. arvensis) mostraron tendencia a un comportamiento invasor, su capacidad de auto-reproducción se vio reducida con el laboreo. En resumen, D. tenuifolia es la única especie que presentó una alta eficiencia de atracción a distintos tipos de polinizadores, conjuntamente con una alta capacidad de auto-reproducción pero sin mostrar carácter invasor. Comparando el atractivo de las especies vegetales utilizadas en este estudio sobre los polinizadores, D. tenuifolia es la especie más recomendable para su cultivo orientado a la atracción de polinizadores en agro-ecosistemas en el centro de España. Esta especie herbácea, conocida como rúcula, tiene la ventaja añadida de ser una especie comercializada para el consumo humano. Además de su atractivo a polinizadores, deben considerarse otros aspectos relacionados con la fisiología y el comportamiento de esta especie vegetal en los agro-ecosistemas antes de recomendar su cultivo. Dado que el cultivo en un campo agrícola de una nueva especie vegetal implica unos costes de producción, por ejemplo debidos a la utilización de agua de riego, es necesario evaluar el incremento en dichos costes en función de demanda hídrica específica de esa especie vegetal. Esta variable es especialmente importante en zonas dónde se presentan sequías recurrentes como es el caso del centro y sur-este de la península Ibérica. Este razonamiento ha motivado un estudio sobre los efectos del estrés hídrico por sequía y el estrés por déficit moderado y severo de riego sobre el crecimiento y floración de la especie D. tenuifolia, así como sobre la atracción a polinizadores. Los resultados muestran que tanto el crecimiento y floración de D. tenuifolia como su atracción a polinizadores no se ven afectados si la falta de riego se produce durante un máximo de 4 días. Sin embargo, si la falta de riego se extiende a lo largo de 8 días o más, se observa una reducción significativa en el crecimiento vegetativo, el número de flores abiertas, el área total y el diámetro de dichas flores, así como en el diámetro y longitud del tubo de la corola. Por otro lado, el estudio pone de manifiesto que un déficit hídrico regulado permite una gestión eficiente del agua, la cual, dependiendo del objetivo final del cultivo de D. tenuifolia (para consumo o solo para atracción de polinizadores), puede reducir su consumo entre un 40 y un 70% sin afectar al crecimiento vegetativo y desarrollo floral, y sin reducir significativamente el atractivo a los polinizadores. Finalmente, esta tesis aborda un estudio para determinar cómo afecta el manejo de hábitat a la producción de los cultivos. En concreto, se ha planteado una experimentación que incluye márgenes mono-específicos y márgenes con una mezcla de especies atractivas a polinizadores, con el fin de determinar su efecto sobre la producción del cultivo de cilantro (C. sativum). La elección del cultivo de cilantro se debe a que requiere la polinización de insectos para su reproducción (aunque, en menor medida, puede polinizarse también por el viento), además de la facilidad para estimar su producción en condiciones semi-controladas de campo. El diseño experimental consistía en la siembra de márgenes mono-específicos de D. tenuifolia y márgenes con mezcla de seis especies anuales situados junto al cultivo de cilantro. Estos cultivos con márgenes florales fueron comparados con controles sin margen floral. Además, un segundo grupo de plantas de cilantro situadas junto a todos los tratamientos, cuyas flores fueron cubiertas para evitar su polinización, sirvió como control para evaluar la influencia de los polinizadores en la producción del cultivo. Los resultados muestran que la presencia de cualquiera de los dos tipos de margen floral mejora el peso y el porcentaje de germinación de las semillas de cilantro frente al control sin margen. Si se comparan los dos tipos de margen, se ha observado un mayor número de semillas de cilantro junto al margen con mezcla de especies florales respecto al margen mono-específico, probablemente debido al mayor número visitas de polinizadores. Puesto que el experimento se realizó en condiciones de campo semi-controladas, esto sugiere que las visitas de polinizadores fueron el factor determinante en los resultados. Por otro lado, los resultados apuntan a que la presencia de un margen floral (ya sea mono-especifico o de mezcla) en cultivos de pequeña escala puede aumentar la producción de cilantro en más de un 200%, al tiempo que contribuyen a la conservación de los polinizadores. ABSTRACT Habitat management, aimed to conserve pollinators in agro-ecosystems, requires selection of the most suitable plant species in terms of their attractiveness to pollinators and simplicity of agronomic management. However, since all flowers are not equally attractive to pollinators and many plant species can be weedy or invasive in the particular habitat, it is important to test which plant species are the most appropriate to be implemented in specific agro-ecosystems. For that reason, this PhD dissertation has been focused on determination of the most appropriate aromatic and herbaceous plants for conservation of pollinators in agro-ecosystems of Central Spain. Therefore, in a first approximation, spatial expansion (i.e. potential weediness) and attractiveness to pollinators of six aromatic perennial plants from the Lamiaceae family, native and frequent in the Mediterranean region, were evaluated. Preliminary plant selection was based on designing a functional mixed margins consisting of plants attractive to pollinators and with different blooming periods, in order to extend the availability of floral resources in the field. After a year of vegetative growth, the next two years the plant species were studied in a randomized block design experiment in order to estimate their attractiveness to pollinators in Central Spain and to investigate whether floral morphology and density affect attractiveness to pollinators. The final aim of the study was to evaluate how their phenology and attractiveness to pollinators can affect the functionality of a flowering mixture of these plants. In addition, the spatial expansion, i.e. potential weediness, of the selected plant species was estimated under field conditions, as the final purpose of the studied plants is to be implemented within agro-ecosystems. The results of the experiment showed that floral morphology did not affect the attractiveness of plants to pollinators, but floral density did, as plant species with higher floral density (i.e. Nepeta tuberosa and Hyssopus officinalis) showed significantly higher attractiveness to pollinators. In addition, of six plant species, two summer species (Melissa officinalis and Thymbra capitata) did not efficiently contribute to the attractiveness of the mixture to pollinators, which reduced its attractiveness during the summer period. Finally, as none of the plants showed weedy behaviour under field conditions, the attractive plant species, i.e. N. tuberosa, H. officinalis and the early spring flowering Salvia verbenaca, showed good potential to conserve the pollinators. Similarly, in a second approximation, the attractiveness to pollinators and agronomic behaviour of twelve herbaceous plants blooming in spring were studied. This experiment was conducted over two years in a randomized block design in order to evaluate attractiveness of preselected plant species to pollinators, as well as their attractiveness efficiency (a combination of duration of flowering and insect visitation), their response to two different agronomic management practices (growing in mixed vs. mono-specific plots; tillage vs. no-tillage), and their potential weediness. The results of this experiment showed that the flowers of Borago officinalis, Echium plantagineum, Phacelia tanacetifolia and Diplotaxis tenuifolia were attractive to bees, while Calendula arvensis, Coriandrum sativum, D. tenuifolia and Lobularia maritima were attractive to hoverflies. In addition, floral mixture resulted in lower attractiveness efficiency to pollinators than mono-specific D. tenuifolia, but higher than most of the mono-specific stands. On the other hand, although some of the most attractive plant species (e.g. P. tanacetifolia and C. arvensis) showed potential weediness, their self-seeding was reduced by tillage. After comparing attractiveness efficiency of various herbaceous species to pollinators and their potential weediness, the results indicated that D. tenuifolia showed the highest attractiveness efficiency to pollinators and efficient self-reproduction, making it highly recommended to attract bees and hoverflies in agro-ecosystems of Central Spain. In addition, this plant, commonly known as wild rocket, has a supplementary economic value as a commercialized crop. The implementation of a new floral margin in agro-ecosystems means increased production costs, especially in regions with frequent and long droughts (as it is Central and South-East area of Iberian Peninsula), where the principal agricultural cost is irrigation. Therefore, before recommending D. tenuifolia for sustainable habitat management within agro-ecosystems, it is necessary to study the effect of drought stress and moderate and severe deficit irrigation on its growth, flower development and attractiveness to pollinators. The results of this experiment showed that in greenhouse conditions, potted D. tenuifolia could be without irrigation for 4 days without affecting its growth, flowering and attractiveness to pollinators. However, lack of irrigation for 8 days or longer significantly reduced the vegetative growth, number of open flowers, total floral area, flower diameter, corolla tube diameter and corolla tube length of D. tenuifolia. This study showed that regulated deficit irrigation can improve water use efficiency, and depending on the purpose of growing D. tenuifolia, as a crop or as a beneficial plant to attract pollinators, it can reduce water consumption by 40% to 70% without affecting its vegetative and floral development and without reducing its attractiveness to pollinators. Finally, the following experiment was developed in order to understand how habitat management can influence on the agricultural production. For this purpose, it was evaluated if the vicinity of mixed and mono-specific field margins, preselected to conserve pollinators within agro-ecosystems, can improve seed production in coriander (C. sativum). The selection of this plant species for the experiment was based on its necessity for insect pollination for production of seeds (even though some pollen can be transmitted from one flower to another by wind) and the fact that under semi-controlled field conditions established in the field it is possible to estimate its total seed production. Since D. tenuifolia is attractive for both bees and hoverflies in Central Spain, the main objective of this experiment was to estimate the impact of two different types of field margins, i.e. mono-specific margin with D. tenuifolia and mixed margin with six herbaceous species, on the seed production of potted coriander. For that reason, it was tested: i) if open pollination (control without proximate field margin and treatments with nearby mono-specific and mixed margin) increases the seed production of coriander when compared with no-pollination (covered inflorescences of coriander) under field conditions; ii) if frequency of pollinator visitation to the flowers of coriander was higher in the presence of field margins than in the control without field margin; and iii) if seed production was higher in the presence of field margins than in control plants of coriander without field margin. The results showed that the proximity of both types of floral margins (mixed and mono-specific) improved the seed quality of coriander plants, as seed weight and germination rate were higher than in control plants without field margin. Furthermore, the number of seeds produced was significantly higher in coriander plants grown near mixed margins than near mono-specific margin, probably due to an increase in pollinator visits. Since the experiment was conducted under semi-controlled field conditions, it can be concluded that pollinator visits was the main factor that biased the results, and that presence of both mixed or mono-specific (D. tenuifolia) margins can improve the production of coriander for more than 200% in small-scale gardens and, in addition, conserve the local pollinators.

How varies optimal welfare pricing with income distribution? The case of the untolled alternative.

In some countries, such as Spain, it is very common that in the same corridor there are two roads with the same origin and destination but with some differences. The most important contrast is that one is a toll highway which offers a better quality than the parallel road in exchange of a price. The users decide if the price of the toll is worth to pay for the advantages offered. This problem is known as the untolled alternative and it has been largely studied in the academic literature, particularly related to economic efficiency and the optimal welfare toll. However, there is a gap in the literature academic regarding how it affects income distribution to the optimal toll. The main objective of the paper is to fill this gap. In this paper a theoretical model in order to obtain the optimal welfare price in a toll highway that competes for capturing the traffic with a conventional road is developed. This model is done for non-usual users who decide over the expectation of free flow conditions. This model is finally applied to the variables we want to focus on: average value of travel time (VTT) which is strongly related with income, dispersion of this VTT and traffic levels, from free flow to congestion. Derived from the results, we conclude that the higher the average VTT the higher the optimal price, the higher the dispersion of this VTT the lower the optimal price and finally, the more the traffic the higher the optimal toll.

A comparative analysis of configurations of linear Fresnel collectors for concentrating solar power

Linear Fresnel collector arrays present some relevant advantages in the domain of concentrating solar power because of their simplicity, robustness and low capital cost. However, they also present important drawbacks and limitations, notably their average concentration ratio, which seems to limit significantly the performance of these systems. First, the paper addresses the problem of characterizing the mirror field configuration assuming hourly data of a typical year, in reference to a configuration similar to that of Fresdemo. For a proper comparative study, it is necessary to define a comparison criterion. In that sense, a new variable is defined, the useful energy efficiency, which only accounts for the radiation that impinges on the receiver with intensities above a reference value. As a second step, a comparative study between central linear Fresnel reflectors and compact linear Fresnel reflectors is carried out. This analysis shows that compact linear Fresnel reflectors minimize blocking and shading losses compared to a central configuration. However this minimization is not enough to overcome other negative effects of the compact Fresnel collectors, as the greater dispersion of the rays reaching the receiver, caused by the fact that mirrors must be located farther from the receiver, which yields to lower efficiencies.

Census, reproductive biology, and germination of Astragalus gines-lopezii (Fabaceae),a narrow and endangered endemic species of SW Spain.

Astragalus gines-lopezii Talavera, Podlech, Devesa & F.M.Vazquez (Fabaceae) is a threatened endemic species with a distribution restricted to a very small area in Badajoz Province (Extremadura Region, SW Spain) and only 2 populations are known.This species was catalogued in the "Endangered" category in the 2008 Red List and the 2010 Threatened Spanish Vascular Flora List. Despite its status as an endangered species, at present very little is known about the distribution, census, and reproductive biology of this species. In this study we have carried out anexhaustive census of A. gines-lopezii, and we have evaluated the production of flowers, fruits, and seeds and the existence or not of intra- and interpopulation variability in seed germination. Results have highlighted the high reproductive capacity of this species on the basis of a high production of flowers, fruits, and seeds. Mechanical scarification of seeds was effective for increasing germination. Thus, initial germination (22%-60%) was increased to 97%-99% when seeds were rubbed with sandpapers. A high intra- and interpopulation variability in seed germination was found in this species. A. gines-lopezii produces seeds with different degrees of physical dormancy, varying this grade among different individuals within a population.

How varies optimal welfare pricing with income distribution? The case of the untolled alternative

In some countries, such as Spain, it is very common that in the same corridor there are two roads with the same origin and destination but with some differences. The most important contrast is that one is a toll highway which offers a better quality than the parallel road in exchange of a price. The users decide if the price of the toll is worth paying for the advantages offered. This problem is known as the untolled alternative and it has been largely studied in the academic literature, particularly related to economic efficiency and the optimal welfare toll. However, there is a gap in the academic literature regarding how income distribution affects the optimal toll. The main objective of the paper is to fill this gap. In this paper a theoretical model is developed in order to obtain the optimal welfare price in a toll highway that competes with a conventional road for capturing the traffic. This model is done for non-usual users who decide over the expectation of free flow conditions. This model is finally applied to the variables we want to focus on: average value of travel time (VTT) which is strongly related with income, dispersion of this VTT and traffic levels, from free flow to congestion. Derived from the results, we conclude that the higher the average VTT the higher the optimal price, the higher the dispersion of this VTT the lower the optimal price and finally, the more the traffic the higher the optimal toll

Caracterización morfofisiológica de semillas de especies leñosas distribuidas en dos zonas secas presentes en el Sur del Ecuador

Sudamérica es una de las zonas con mayor cantidad de bosque seco tropical a nivel mundial. No obstante, estos bosques han sido poco conocidos y la mayoría de estudios han estado orientados hacia los bosques húmedos tropicales. Los bosques secos se han reducido drásticamente y siguen muy amenazados, corriendo el riesgo de desaparecer en los próximos años. Por ello, es fundamental, generar investigación aplicada para la conservación inmediata de los ecosistemas secos tropicales. En Ecuador, la situación no es diferente y las zonas secas catalogadas como biodiversas están en constante amenaza. Los pocos estudios realizados en Ecuador sobre zonas secas, han permitido mejorar nuestro conocimiento referente a la diversidad y abundancia de las especies, relaciones planta-planta y síndromes de dispersión. No existen estudios sobre caracteres morfológicos en frutos y semillas de las especies leñosas de bosque seco. Sin embargo, nuestra comprensión de la dinámica y estructura de las comunidades ecológicas de zonas secas poco estudiadas, puede mejorar rápidamente mediante el estudio y enfoque de rasgos morfofisiológicos funcionales. El objetivo general del presente estudio fue aportar al conocimiento de la ecología y biología de semillas de zonas secas tropicales mediante el análisis y evaluación de rasgos morfofisiológicos de frutos y semillas de una comunidad de especies leñosas. El estudio se realizó en una zona de bosque y matorral seco, ubicados al sur occidente del Ecuador, a una altitud comprendida entre los 250 a 1 200 m s.n.m. caracterizada por una marcada estacionalidad ambiental, con lluvias desde diciembre a abril y una estación seca de mayo a noviembre. Precipitación media anual de 500 mm con una temperatura media anual de 20° a 26 °C. La zona de estudio forma parte de la región Tumbesina compartida entre el sur del Ecuador y el norte del Perú con gran diversidad de especies vegetales endémicas. Para el estudio se colectaron frutos con semillas maduras previamente a su dispersión de entre ocho y diez individuos de 80 especies entre árboles y arbustos más representativos de los bosques secos ecuatorianos. De los frutos colectados se utilizó una muestra al azar de 50 frutos y semillas por especie para los diferentes análisis. Se midió y evaluó 18 rasgos morfológicos y fisiológicos cuantitativos y cualitativos de frutos, semillas y de la especie. Se realizaron diferentes análisis de asociación y correlación entre los rasgos evaluados, con cinco variables ambientales registradas de las 109 parcelas establecidas en el área de estudio, además analizamos el tipo de dormición y comparamos la respuesta germinativa a la deshidratación relacionada con dos comunidades secas, matorral y bosque seco. Los resultados mostraron que las especies presentan gran heterogeneidad en rasgos continuos de las semillas. La variabilidad fue más evidente en rasgos como tamaño, volumen, masa y número de semillas por fruto. Sin embargo, una alta proporción de las especies tiende a producir una semilla por fruto. Además, la mayoría de las especies de bosque seco se caracterizan por no poseer algún tipo de apéndices o areola en sus semillas, forma ovalada y sin endospermo. La reserva nutritiva de las semillas se encuentra especialmente en los cotiledones de los embriones. Se encontraron seis tipos diferentes de embriones y la mayoría de las especies presentó embriones gruesos e invertidos. La dispersión de semillas está dominada por zoocoria en un 38 %, con relación a anemocoria (22 %) y autocoria (19 %). Sin embargo, encontramos que el 70 % de las especies posee frutos secos. Los análisis de dormición en las semillas de bosque seco, mostraron que el 60 % de las especies de bosque seco presentaron semillas con algún tipo de latencia, menor a la encontrada en especies de bosque deciduo tropical y sabanas, sin embargo, la dormición de las especies de bosque seco fue mayor al porcentaje de especies con dormición de bosque semiperenne y selva lluviosa tropical. La dormición física constituyó el 35 % de las especies de bosque seco, seguido del 12 % con dormición fisiológica, mientras que solamente una especie tuvo dormición morfológica. Encontramos que la dormición de las semillas de las especies en estudio se relaciona significativamente con el tipo y función del embrión y con el endospermo. Existieron relaciones significativas entre los rasgos morfológicos de los frutos, semillas, embriones y atributos de los individuos de 46 especies, aunque en algunos casos con coeficientes de correlación bajos. Hubo pocas relaciones entre los rasgo morfológicos de las semillas con las variables ambientales registradas. Solamente el tipo de testa y la presencia de apéndices en las semillas mostraron relación con el pH y la temperatura media del suelo. No obstante usando el modelo fouth corner-RLQ, no se encontraron asociaciones claras ni significativas entre rasgos morfológicos de semillas y frutos con variables ambientales. Al medir el efecto de la deshidratación en las semillas de los dos hábitats secos tropicales: bosque y matorral seco, los resultados determinaron que tanto las semillas de las especies leñosas de ambientes más áridos (matorral seco) están en gran medida pre-adaptadas a la desecación que las especies de ambientes menos áridos (bosque seco). Los tratamientos de deshidratación ejercieron un efecto negativo en los porcentajes de germinación en todas las especies, excepto para C. platanifolia. Los resultados más sorprendentes se registraron para Senna alata que mostró germinación extremadamente baja o incluso sin germinación a contenidos de humedad de la semillas de 0,10 g H2O g de peso seco. Las curvas de germinación difirieron significativamente entre los tratamientos de deshidratación en cada especie. Aportar al conocimiento la fisiología de la deshidratación y los límites de tolerancia de las semillas de bosque y matorral seco ayudará a entender mejor el papel de este rasgo en la ecología de las semillas y dinámica de las comunidades áridas tropicales. El estudio demostró, que la adaptación ecológica de las semillas de las especies leñosas de bosque seco a factores ambientales extremos, puede verse reflejada en una red de interacciones y correlaciones complejas entre los propios rasgos morfológicos y fisiológicos continuos y cuantitativos, sobre todo en rasgos internos de las semillas, quienes ejercerían una mayor influencia en toda la red de interacciones. Si bien, los rasgos de las semillas no mostraron fuertes relaciones con las variables ambientales, posiblemente las asociaciones presentes entre rasgos morfológicos pudiesen predecir en cambio interacciones entre especies y comportamientos y procesos relacionados con la tolerancia a la deshidratación y dormición de las semillas. ABSTRACT South America is one of the areas with the largest number of tropical dry forest in the world. However, these forests have been poorly understood and most studies have been directed to tropical rainforests. Dry forests have been drastically reduced and are very threatened, risking desaparecerer in the next years. It is therefore essential, generate applied research for conservation of tropical dry ecosystems. In Ecuador the situation is no different and dry areas classified as biodiverse are under constant threat. The few studies made in Ecuador on drylands have improved our knowledge concerning the diversity and abundance of species, plant-plant relationships and dispersion syndromes. Morphological studies on fruits and seeds of woody dry forest species do not exist. However, our understanding of the dynamics and structure of ecological communities dryland little studied, may improve quickly through the study and functional approach morphophysiological traits. The overall objective of this study was to contribute to the knowledge of the ecology and biology of tropical dry seeds through analysis and evaluation of morphophysiological traits of fruits and seeds of a community of woody species. The study was conducted in an area of dry scrub forest, located at the southwest of Ecuador, at an altitude between 250 to 1200 m asl. Environmental characterized by a marked seasonality, with rainfall from December to April and a dry season from May to November. Annual rainfall of 500 mm with an average annual temperature of 20° to 26 °C. The study area is part of the shared Tumbesina region between southern Ecuador and northern Peru with a great diversity of endemic plant species. For the study, we collected fruit and seed madure of eight and ten individuos of 80 species of trees and shrub most representated of the Ecuador dry forest. We selected a sample of 50 fruits and seeds for different analysis. We measure and evaluate 18 morphological and physiological traits of fruits, seeds and species. We perform analysis and correlation between traits associated with five environmental variables taken from the 109 plots established in the study area also analyze and compare the germination response to dehydration related to two dry communities, scrub and dry forest. The results showed that the species have great heterogeneity in continuous seed traits. Variability was more evident in features such as size, volume, mass, and number of seeds per fruit. However, a high proportion of species tends to produce a seed per fruit. In addition, most of the species of dry forest is characterized by not having some sort of ppendices or areola in its seeds, oval form and without endosperm. The nutrient reserves of seeds are especially in the cotyledons of the embryos. Six different embryos were found and most of the species presented thick and inverted embryos. Seed dispersal zoochory is dominated by 38 %, relative to anemochory (22 %) and autochory (19 %). However, we found that 70 % of the species has dried fruits. The analysis of dormancy from tropical dry forest, showed that 60 % of species showed seed dormancy, down from species found in tropical deciduous forest and savanna, however dormancy dry forest species was higher than the percentage of forest species dormancy semi-evergreen and tropical rain forest. Physical dormancy corresponds to 35 % of species, followed by 12 % with physiological dormancy, while only one species had morphological dormancy. We found that dormancy of the seeds was significantly related to the type and function of the embryo and the endospemo. There were significant relationships between morphological traits of fruits, seeds, embryos and attributes of individuals of 46 species, although in some cases with low correlation coefficients. There was little relationship between the morphologic traits of the seeds with the registered environmental variables. Only the type of tesla and the presence of appendages on the seeds showed relation to pH and the mean soil temperature. However, using the fourth corner-RLQ model, neither clear nor significant between morphological traits of seeds and fruits associations with environmental variables were found. The effect of dehydration on seeds of two tropical dry forest habitats was evident in dry scrub. The results determined that both the seeds of woody species forest and dry scrub are pre-adapted to drier conditions. Dehydration treatments exerted a negative effect on germination percentage in all species, except for C. platanifolia. However, all species germinated in treatments of extreme dryness, but in low percentages. The most striking results were recorded for Senna alata showed no germination when its moisture content was 0.10 g H2O g dry weight. Germination curves differ significantly between the treatments of dehydration in each species. Contribute to the knowledge of physiology and dehydration tolerance limits seeds dry scrub forest and help you better understand the role of this trait in seed ecology and dynamics of tropical arid communities. The study showed that the ecological adaptation of seeds of woody species of dry forest to extreme environmental factors may be reflected in a complex web of interactions and correlations between morphological and physiological traits continuous and quantitative themselves, especially in internal seed traits, who exerted a major influence on the entire network of interactions. While the seed traits showed strong relationships with environmental variables possibly present associations between morphological traits could predict interactions between species and change behaviors related to desiccation tolerance and seed dormancy processes.

Fenología y capacidad de dispersión de Monochamus galloprovincialis (Olivier 1795) en la Península Ibérica = Phenology and dispersal ability of Monochamus galloprovincialis (Olivier 1795) at Iberian Peninsula

La aparición y avance de la enfermedad del marchitamiento del pino (Pine Wilt Desease, PWD), causada por Bursaphelenchus xylophilus (Nematoda; Aphelenchoididae), el nematodo de la madera del pino (NMP), en el suroeste de Europa, ha puesto de manifiesto la necesidad de estudiar la fenología y la dispersión de su único vector conocido en Europa, Monochamus galloprovincialis (Col., Cerambycidae). El análisis de 12 series de emergencias entre 2010 y 2014, registradas en Palencia, València y Teruel, con material procedente de diversos puntos de la península ibérica, demostró una alta variabilidad en la fenología de M. galloprovincialis y la divergencia térmica respecto de las poblaciones portuguesas. Para éstas, el establecimiento de los umbrales térmicos de desarrollo de las larvas post-dormantes del vector (12,2 y 33,5ºC) permitió la predicción de la emergencia mediana para la fecha en la que se acumulaban de 822 grados-día. Ninguna de las series analizadas en este trabajo necesitó de dichos grados-día estimados para la emergencia mediana. Asimismo, la emergencia se adelantó en las regiones más calurosas, mientras que se retrasó en las zonas más templadas. Más allá de la posible variabilidad entre poblaciones locales peninsulares, se detectaron indicios de que la diferencia en la acumulación de calor durante el otoño puede afectar el grado de maduración de las larvas invernantes, y su posterior patrón temporal de emergencia. Por último, también fueron observados comportamientos de protandria en las emergencias. Respecto a la fenología de su vuelo, entre los años 2010 y 2015, fueron ejecutados un total de 8 experimentos de captura de M. galloprovincialis mediante trampas cebadas con atrayentes en diferentes regiones (Castellón, Teruel, Segovia y Alicante) permitiendo el seguimiento del periodo de vuelo. Su análisis permitió constatar la disminución de las capturas y el acortamiento del periodo de vuelo con la altitud, el inicio del vuelo en el mes de mayo/junio a partir de los 14ºC de temperatura media diaria, la influencia de las altas temperaturas en la disminución de las capturas estivales (potencial causante de perfiles bimodales en las curvas de vuelo en las zonas menos frías), la evolución de la proporción de sexos a lo largo del periodo de vuelo (que muestra una mayor captura de hembras al inicio y de machos al final) y el comportamiento diurno y ligado a las altas temperaturas del vuelo circadiano del insecto. Dos redes de muestreo sistemático de insectos saproxílicos instaladas en la Comunitat Valencia (Red MUFFET, 15 parcelas, año 2013) y en Murcia (Red ESFP, 20 parcelas, años 2008-2010) permitieron el estudio de la comunidad de insectos relacionada con M. galloprovincialis. Cada una de las parcelas contaba con una trampa cebada con atrayentes y una estación meteorológica. El registro de más de 250 especies de coleópteros saproxílicos demostró el potencial que tiene el empleo de redes de trampas vigía para la detección temprana de organismos exóticos, además de permitir la caracterización y evaluación de las comunidades de entomofauna útil, representando una de las mejores herramientas de la gestión integrada de plagas. En este caso, la comunidad de saproxílicos estudiada mostró ser muy homogénea respecto a la variación ambiental de las zonas de muestreo, y que pese a las pequeñas variaciones entre las comunidades de los diferentes ecosistemas, el rol que M. galloprovincialis desempeña en ellas a lo largo de todo el gradiente estudiado es el mismo. Con todo, el análisis mediante redes de interacción mostró su relevancia ecológica al actuar de conector entre los diferentes niveles tróficos. Por último, un total de 12 experimentos de marcaje-liberación-recaptura desarrollados entre 2009 y 2012 en Castellón, Teruel, Valencia y Murcia permitieron evaluar el comportamiento dispersivo de M. galloprovincialis. Las detecciones mediante trampas cebadas de los insectos liberados se dieron por lo menos 8 días después de la emergencia. La abundancia de población pareció relacionada con la continuidad, la naturalización de la masa, y con la afección previa de incendios. La dispersión no estuvo influida por la dirección ni la intensidad de los vientos dominantes. La abundancia de material hospedante (en lo referente a las variables de masa y a los índices de competencia) influyó en la captura del insecto en paisajes fragmentados, aunque la ubicación de las trampas optimizó el número de capturas cuando se ubicaron en el límite de la masa y en zonas visibles. Por último también se constató que M. galloprovincialis posee suficiente capacidad de dispersión como para recorrer hasta 1500 m/día, llegando a alcanzar distancias máximas de 13600m o de 22100 m. ABSTRACT The detection and expansion of the Pine Wilt Desease (PWD), caused by Bursaphelenchus xylophilus (Nematoda; Aphelenchoididae), Pine Wood Nematode (PWN), in southwestern Europe since 1999, has triggered off the study of the phenology and the dispersion of its unique vector in the continent, Monochamus galloprovincialis (Coleoptera, Cerambycidae). The analysis of 12 emergence series between 2010 and 2014 registered in Palencia, Teruel and Valencia (Spain), registered from field colonized material collected at several locations of the Iberian Peninsula, showed a high variability in the emergence phenology of M. galloprovincialis. In addition, these patterns showed a very acute thermal divergence regarding a development model fitted earlier in Portugal. Such model forecasted the emergence of 50% of M. galloprovincialis individuals in the Setúbal Peninsula (Portugal) when an average of 822 degree-days (DD) were reached, based on the accumulation of heat from the 1st of March until emergence and lower and upper thresholds of 12.2 ºC and 33,5 °C respectively. In our results, all analyzed series needed less than 822 DD to complete the 50% of the emergence. Also, emergency occurred earlier in the hottest regions, while it was delayed in more temperate areas. Beyond the possible variability between local populations, the difference in the heat accumulation during the fall season may have affected the degree of maturation of overwintering larvae, and subsequently, the temporal pattern of M. galloprovincialis emergences. Therefore these results suggest the need to differentiate local management strategies for the PWN vector, depending on the location, and the climatic variables of each region. Finally, protandrous emergence patterns were observed for M. galloprovincialis in most of the studied data-sets. Regarding the flight phenology of M. galloprovincialis, a total of 8 trapping experiments were carried out in different regions of the Iberian Peninsula (Castellón, Teruel, Segovia and Alicante) between 2010 and 2015. The use of commercial lures and traps allowed monitoring of the flight period of M. galloprovincialis. The analyses of such curves, helped confirming different aspects. First, a decline in the number of catches and a shortening of the flight period was observed as the altitude increased. Flight period was recorded to start in May / June when the daily average temperature went over 14 ° C. A significant influence of high temperatures on the decrease of catches in the summer was found in many occasions, which frequently lead to a bimodal profile of the flight curves in warm areas. The evolution of sex ratio along the flight period shows a greater capture of females at the beginning of the period, and of males at the end. In addition, the circadian response of M. galloprovincialis to lured traps was described for the first time, concluding that the insect is diurnal and that such response is linked to high temperatures. Two networks of systematic sampling of saproxylic insects were installed in the Region of Valencia (Red MUFFET, 15 plots, 2013) and Murcia (Red ICPF, 20 plots, 2008-2010). These networks, intended to serve the double purpose of early-detection and long term monitoring of the saproxylic beetle assemblies, allowed the study of insect communities related to M. galloprovincialis. Each of the plots had a trap baited with attractants and a weather station. The registration of almost 300 species of saproxylic beetles demonstrated the potential use of such trapping networks for the early detection of exotic organisms, while at the same time allows the characterization and evaluation of useful entomological fauna communities, representing one of the best tools for the integrated pest management. In this particular case, the studied community of saproxylic beetles was very homogeneous with respect to environmental variation of the sampling areas, and despite small variations between communities of different ecosystems, the role that M. galloprovincialis apparently plays in them across the studied gradient seems to be the same. However, the analysis through food-webs showed the ecological significance of M. galloprovincialis as a connector between different trophic levels. Finally, 12 mark-release-recapture experiments were carried out between 2009 and 2012 in Castellón, Teruel, Valencia and Murcia (Spain) with the aim to describe the dispersive behavior of M. galloprovincialis as well as the stand and landscape characteristics that could influence its abundance and dispersal. No insects younger than 8 days were caught in lured traps. Population abundance estimates from mark-release-recapture data, seemed related to forest continuity, naturalization, and to prior presence of forest fires. On the other hand, M. galloprovincialis dispersal was not found to be significantly influenced by the direction and intensity of prevailing winds. The abundance of host material, very related to stand characteristics and spacing indexes, influenced the insect abundance in fragmented landscapes. In addition, the location of the traps optimized the number of catches when they were placed in the edge of the forest stands and in visible positions. Finally it was also found that M. galloprovincialis is able to fly up to 1500 m / day, reaching maximum distances of up to 13600 m or 22100 m.

Comparison of push-in and push-out tests for measuring interfacial shear strength in nano-reinforced composite materials

The influence of the carbon nanotubes (CNTs) content on the fiber/matrix interfacial shear strength (IFSS) in glass/fiber epoxy composites was measured by means of push-in and push-out tests. Both experimental methodologies provided equivalent values of the IFSS for each material. It was found that the dispersion of CNTs increased in IFSS by 19% in average with respect to the composite without CNTs. This improvement was reached with 0.3 wt.% of CNTs and increasing the CNT content up to 0.8 wt.% did not improve the interface strength.