Síntese e aplicações catalíticas na funcionalização de alcanos de novos compostos com polioxometalatos e catiões orgânicos

A presente dissertação, que no seu conjunto se propõe apresentar o estudo de oxidação de compostos orgânicos com peróxido de hidrogénio na presença dos aniões do tipo Keggin, mono-substituídos por MnIII e FeIII, sob a forma de sais de tetra-n-butilamónio (TBA) e suportados em matriz de sílica funcionalizada, enquanto vital método de obtenção de importante precursores de síntese orgânica, tem na sua base o trabalho de Doutoramento desenvolvido no Departamento de Química da Universidade de Aveiro. Os compostos preparados e testados em sistema homogéneo foram os sais de TBA dos aniões de Keggin, de fórmula geral [XW11M(H2O)O39]n-, onde X = P, Si ou B e M = MnIII e FeIII. Em sistema heterogéneo foram testados diferentes materiais, que diferem entre si na matriz de sílica. Assim, fez-se a heterogeneização de [PW11Fe(H2O)O39]4- em sílica funcionalizada com catiões de césio e grupos propilamónio; [BW11Fe(H2O)O39]6- e [SiW11Fe(H2O)O39]5- foram imobilizados em sílica contendo grupos aminopropilo e o anião [PW11Mn(H2O)O39]4- foi suportado em sílica quimicamente modificada com grupos alquilamónio. Os substratos orgânicos estudados incluem o 1H-indeno, 1,2-di-hidronaftaleno, etilbenzeno, cumeno, p-cimeno, sec-butilbenzeno, 1- e 2-etilnaftaleno, cis-cicloocteno e ciclooctano. Paralelamente usaram-se alguns outros substratos, quando necessário obter esclarecimentos mecanísticos. A tese assenta numa estrutura composta por 7 capítulos. Na primeira, faz-se uma abordagem aos polioxometalatos e às reacções de oxidação de hidrocarbonetos, com particular destaque no uso de polioxometalatos em catálise oxidativa e também no uso de peróxido de hidrogénio como oxidante. A eficiência catalítica dos aniões de Keggin mono substituídos por MnIII e FeIII, em sistema homogéneo foi avaliada na oxidação de compostos orgânicos característicos, nomeadamente de ciclo-alcenilbenzenos, alquilbenzenos, ciclo-alquilbenzenos e hidrocarbonetos aromáticos policíclicos com H2O2, em acetonitrilo. Os resultados destes estudos encontram-se descritos nos capítulos dois, três e quatro desta tese. Estes compostos mostraram-se catalisadores eficientes e selectivos para a oxidação de alcanos e alcenos. O quinto capítulo da tese prossegue com a síntese, caracterização e eficiência catalítica dos polioxotungstatos referidos anteriormente imobilizados numa matriz de sílica funcionalizada com iões césio (SiO2-Cs), grupos aminopropilo (SiO2–(CH2)3NH2) ou trietilpropilamónio (SiO2-(CH2)3N(Et)3). A actividade catalítica destes compostos foi estudada utilizando o cis-cicloocteno e ciclooctano como substratos padrão. A oxidação de cis-clicoocteno originou o epóxido com 100% de selectividade e o catalisador foi reutilizado durante 4 ciclos com elevada eficiência. No sexto capítulo, são descritas as metodologias experimentais de síntese dos novos compostos, as condições catalíticas, a instrumentação e demais métodos e procedimentos usados. No sétimo e último capítulo, tecem-se as conclusões finais e apresentam-se algumas perspectivas de trabalho futuro utilizando o sistema, POM/H2O2, usado neste trabalho.

Catalisadores ou precursores de espécies activas à base de molibdénio

Atendendo à produção de epóxidos em larga escala e à sua importância como intermediários versáteis, muita atenção tem sido dada à epoxidação de olefinas. Destaca-se a implementação do processo industrial de epoxidação de propileno em fase líquida com tBHP, usando complexos de molibdénio como catalisadores homogéneos (Halcon-ARCO). Neste trabalho foram investigados novos complexos à base de molibdénio como catalisadores (ou precursores) para epoxidação de olefinas em fase líquida. Foi objecto de estudo a identificação das espécies activas e a estabilidade dos catalisadores através da sua separação no final das reacções catalíticas, caracterização e reutilização. Escolheu-se como reacção modelo a epoxidação do ciscicloocteno com tBHP (em decano, tBHPdec), a 55 ºC. Estendeu-se o estudo dos desempenhos catalíticos a diferentes substratos, oxidantes, solventes e métodos de aquecimento. A maior actividade catalítica foi observada para os complexos [MoO2Cl2L2] (L=ligando dialquilamida), mais estáveis e fáceis de manusear que [MoO2Cl2] e complexos análogos com L {THF, MeCN} (Cap. 2). A partir destes complexos podem-se formar in situ espécies activas intermediárias do tipo [(MoO2ClL2)2(μ-O)]. O complexo [MoO2(Lzol)], Lzol= ligando oxazolina quiral (Cap. 3), é um catalisador estável e versátil, activo para a epoxidação de diversas olefinas (selectividades elevadas para epóxidos, mas enantioselectividades baixas), desidrogenação oxidativa de álcoois e sulfoxidação de sulfuretos. O catalisador foi também reciclado eficientemente, usando um líquido iónico (LI). O complexo iónico [MoO2Cl{HC(3,5-Me2pz)3}]BF4 (Cap.4) converteu-se nos complexos activos [{MoO2(HC(3,5-Me2pz)3)}2(μ-O)](BF4)2, [Mo2O3(O2)2(μ-O){HC(3,5-Me2pz)3}] e [MoO3{HC(3,5-Me2pz)3}]; quando dissolvido num LI, o catalisador foi reciclado com sucesso. A presença de água e o meio oxidante influenciaram a formação destas espécies. Os complexos [CpMo(CO)3Me] (Cap.5) e [CpMo(CO)2(η3- C3H5)] (Cap.6) originaram espécies activas similares (baseado nos testes catalíticos e nos espectros FT-IR ATR dos sólidos recuperados). Para [Cp'Mo(CO)2(η3-C3H5)], a influência do Cp' na actividade catalítica sugeriu a formação de espécies activas com este ligando. A partir dos complexos [Mo(CO)4L] formaram-se in situ catalisadores estáveis, que podem ser heterogéneos: para L=2-[3(5)-pirazolil]piridina formou-se [Mo4O12L4]; para L=[3- (2-piridil)-1-pirazolil]acetato de etilo formou-se [Mo8O24L4] (Cap.7). O uso de microondas (MO) como método de aquecimento em vez de um banho de óleo (BO) resultou no aumento da velocidade da reacção catalítica, devido ao aquecimento mais rápido da mistura reaccional (Caps. 5 e 7). A utilização da solução aquosa de tBHP em vez de tBHPdec era preferível, porque excluía o decano do sistema reaccional e mantinham-se elevados os rendimentos em epóxido (Caps. 2 e 6); optimizou-se o desempenho catalítico removendo a água das misturas reaccionais (Caps. 4 e 7). O melhor resultado para a epoxidação de limoneno foi observado para [CpMoCO3Me]: 88% de rendimento em epóxido (2 h, 55 ºC, método de aquecimento MO).

Metal-organic frameworks based on phosphonate linkers

During the last few decades, Metal-Organic Frameworks (MOFs), also known as Coordination Polymers, have attracted worldwide research attentions due to their incremented fascinating architectures and unique properties. These multidimensional materials have been potential applications in distinct areas: gas storage and separation, ion exchange, catalysis, magnetism, in optical sensors, among several others. The MOF research group at the University of Aveiro has prepared MOFs from the combination of phosphonate organic primary building units (PBUs) with, mainly, lanthanides. This thesis documents the last findings in this area involving the synthesis of multidimensional MOFs based on four di- or tripodal phosphonates ligands. The organic PBUs were designed and prepared by selecting and optimizing the best reaction conditions and synthetic routes. The self-assembly between phosphonate PBUs and rare-earths cations led to the formation of several 1D, 2D and 3D families of isotypical MOFs. The preparation of these materials was achieved by using distinct synthetic approaches: hydro(solvo)thermal, microwave- and ultrasound-assisted, one-pot and ionothermal synthesis. The selection of the organic PBUs showed to have an important role in the final architectures: while flexible phosphonate ligands afforded 1D, 2D and dense 3D structures, a large and rigid organic PBU isolated a porous 3D MOF. The crystal structure of these materials was successfully unveiled by powder or single-crystal X-ray diffraction. All multidimensional MOFs were characterized by standard solid-state techniques (FT-IR, electron microscopy (SEM and EDS), solid-state NMR, elemental and thermogravimetric analysis). Some MOF materials exhibited remarkable thermal stability and robustness up to ca. 400 ºC. The intrinsic properties of some MOFs were investigated. Photoluminescence studies revealed that the selected organic PBUs are suitable sensitizers of Tb3+ leading to the isolation of intense green-emitting materials. The suppression of the O−H quenchers by deuteration or dehydration processes improves substantially the photoluminescence of the optically-active Eu3+-based materials. Some MOF materials exhibited high heterogeneous catalytic activity and excellent regioselectivity in the ring-opening reaction of styrene oxide (PhEtO) with methanol (100% conversion of PhEtO at 55 ºC for 30 min). The porous MOF material was employed in gas separation processes. This compound showed the ability to separate propane over propylene. The ionexchanged form of this material (containing K+ cations into its network) exhibited higher affinity for CO2 being capable to separate acetylene over this environment non-friendly gas.

Cystathionine beta-synthase variants : identification, characterization and modulation by thiol compounds

Tese de doutoramento, Farmácia (Bioquímica), Universidade de Lisboa, Faculdade de Farmácia, 2014

Cobalt complexes with pyrazole ligands as catalyst precursors for the peroxidative oxidation of cyclohexane: Z-ray absorption spectroscopy studies and biological applications

[CoCl(-Cl)(Hpz(Ph))(3)](2) (1) and [CoCl2(Hpz(Ph))(4)] (2) were obtained by reaction of CoCl2 with HC(pz(Ph))(3) and Hpz(Ph), respectively (Hpz(Ph)=3-phenylpyrazole). The compounds were isolated as air-stable solids and fully characterized by IR and far-IR spectroscopy, MS(ESI+/-), elemental analysis, cyclic voltammetry (CV), controlled potential electrolysis, and single-crystal X-ray diffraction. Electrochemical studies showed that 1 and 2 undergo single-electron irreversible (CoCoIII)-Co-II oxidations and (CoCoI)-Co-II reductions at potentials measured by CV, which also allowed, in the case of dinuclear complex 1, the detection of electronic communication between the Co centers through the chloride bridging ligands. The electrochemical behavior of models of 1 and 2 were also investigated by density functional theory (DFT) methods, which indicated that the vertical oxidation of 1 and 2 (that before structural relaxation) affects mostly the chloride and pyrazolyl ligands, whereas adiabatic oxidation (that after the geometry relaxation) and reduction are mostly metal centered. Compounds 1 and 2 and, for comparative purposes, other related scorpionate and pyrazole cobalt complexes, exhibit catalytic activity for the peroxidative oxidation of cyclohexane to cyclohexanol and cyclohexanone under mild conditions (room temperature, aqueous H2O2). Insitu X-ray absorption spectroscopy studies indicated that the species derived from complexes 1 and 2 during the oxidation of cyclohexane (i.e., Ox-1 and Ox-2, respectively) are analogous and contain a Co-III site. Complex 2 showed low invitro cytotoxicity toward the HCT116 colorectal carcinoma and MCF7 breast adenocarcinoma cell lines.

Regulation of Nedd4-2 self-ubiquitination and stability by a PY motif located within its HECT-domain.

Ubiquitin ligases play a pivotal role in substrate recognition and ubiquitin transfer, yet little is known about the regulation of their catalytic activity. Nedd4 (neural-precursor-cell-expressed, developmentally down-regulated 4)-2 is an E3 ubiquitin ligase composed of a C2 domain, four WW domains (protein-protein interaction domains containing two conserved tryptophan residues) that bind PY motifs (L/PPXY) and a ubiquitin ligase HECT (homologous with E6-associated protein C-terminus) domain. In the present paper we show that the WW domains of Nedd4-2 bind (weakly) to a PY motif (LPXY) located within its own HECT domain and inhibit auto-ubiquitination. Pulse-chase experiments demonstrated that mutation of the HECT PY-motif decreases the stability of Nedd4-2, suggesting that it is involved in stabilization of this E3 ligase. Interestingly, the HECT PY-motif mutation does not affect ubiquitination or down-regulation of a known Nedd4-2 substrate, ENaC (epithelial sodium channel). ENaC ubiquitination, in turn, appears to promote Nedd4-2 self-ubiquitination. These results support a model in which the inter- or intra-molecular WW-domain-HECT PY-motif interaction stabilizes Nedd4-2 by preventing self-ubiquitination. Substrate binding disrupts this interaction, allowing self-ubiquitination of Nedd4-2 and subsequent degradation, resulting in down-regulation of Nedd4-2 once it has ubiquitinated its target. These findings also point to a novel mechanism employed by a ubiquitin ligase to regulate itself differentially compared with substrate ubiquitination and stability.

Targeting B-cell lymphomas with inhibitors of the MALT1 paracaspase.

The paracaspase MALT1 is an Arg-specific protease that cleaves multiple substrates to promote lymphocyte proliferation and survival. The catalytic activity of MALT1 is normally tightly regulated by antigen receptor triggering, which promotes MALT1 activation by its inducible monoubiquitination-dependent dimerization. Constitutive MALT1 activity is a hallmark of specific subsets of B-cell lymphomas, which are characterized by chromosomal translocations or point mutations that activate MALT1 or its upstream regulators. Recent findings suggest that such lymphomas may be sensitive to treatment with MALT1 inhibitors. Here we review recent progress in the understanding of MALT1 function and regulation, and the development of small molecule MALT1 inhibitors for therapeutic applications.

A new class of isothiocyanate-based irreversible inhibitors of macrophage migration inhibitory factor.

Macrophage migration inhibitory factor (MIF) is a homotrimeric multifunctional proinflammatory cytokine that has been implicated in the pathogenesis of several inflammatory and autoimmune diseases. Current therapeutic strategies for targeting MIF focus on developing inhibitors of its tautomerase activity or modulating its biological activities using anti-MIF neutralizing antibodies. Herein we report a new class of isothiocyanate (ITC)-based irreversible inhibitors of MIF. Modification by benzyl isothiocyanate (BITC) and related analogues occurred at the N-terminal catalytic proline residue without any effect on the oligomerization state of MIF. Different alkyl and arylalkyl ITCs modified MIF with nearly the same efficiency as BITC. To elucidate the mechanism of action, we performed detailed biochemical, biophysical, and structural studies to determine the effect of BITC and its analogues on the conformational state, quaternary structure, catalytic activity, receptor binding, and biological activity of MIF. Light scattering, analytical ultracentrifugation, and NMR studies on unmodified and ITC-modified MIF demonstrated that modification of Pro1 alters the tertiary, but not the secondary or quaternary, structure of the trimer without affecting its thermodynamic stability. BITC induced drastic effects on the tertiary structure of MIF, in particular residues that cluster around Pro1 and constitute the tautomerase active site. These changes in tertiary structure and the loss of catalytic activity translated into a reduction in MIF receptor binding activity, MIF-mediated glucocorticoid overriding, and MIF-induced Akt phosphorylation. Together, these findings highlight the role of tertiary structure in modulating the biochemical and biological activities of MIF and present new opportunities for modulating MIF biological activities in vivo.

Phospha-adamantanes as ligands for palladium-catalyzed cross-coupling reactions

New and robust methodologies have been designed for palladium-catalyzed crosscoupling reactions involving·a novel·class oftertiary phosphine ligand incorporating a phospha-adamantane framework. It has been realized that bulky, electron-rich phosphines, when used as ligands for palladium, allow for cross-coupling reactions involving even the less reactive aryl halide substrates with a variety of coupling partners. In an effort to design new ligands suitable for carrying out cross-coupling transformations, the secondary phosphine, 1,3,5,7-tetramethyl-2,4,8-trioxa-6phosphaadamantane was converted into a number of tertiary phosphine derivatives. The ability of these tertiary phosphaadamantanes to act as effective ligands in the palladiumcatalyzed Suzuki cross-coupling was examined. 1,3,5,7-Tetramethyl-6-phenyl-2,4,8trioxa- 6-phosphaadamantane (PA-Ph) used in combination with Pdz(dba)3permitted the reaction of an array of aryl iodides, bromides and chlorides with a variety arylboronic acids to give biaryls in good to excellent yields. Subsequently, palladium complexes of PA-Ph were prepared and isolated in high yields as air stable palladium bisphosphine complexes. Two different kinds of crystals were isolated and upon characterization revealed two complexes, Pd(PA-Ph)z.dba and Pd(PA-Ph)zOz. Preliminary screening for their catalytic activity indicated that the former is more reactive than the latter. Pd(PAPh) z.dba was applied as the catalyst for Sonogashira cross-coupling reactions of aryl iodides and bromides and in the reactions of aryl bromides and chlorides with ketones to give a-arylated ketones at mild temperatures in high yields.

Primary structure and expression studies of the dihydrofolate reductase gene (DFRI) of Saccharomyces cerevisiae

The nucleotide sequence of a genomic DNA fragment thought previously to contain the dihydrofolate reductase gene (DFR1) of Saccharomyces cerevisiae by genetic criteria was determined. This DNA fragment of 1784' basepairs contains a large open reading frame from position 800 to 1432, which encodes a enzyme with a predicted molecular weight of 24,229.8 Daltons. Analysis of the amino acid sequence of this protein revealed that the yeast polypep·tide contained 211 amino acids, compared to the 186 residues commonly found in the polypeptides of other eukaryotes. The difference in size of the gene product can be attributed mainly to an insert in the yeast gene. Within this region, several consensus sequences required for processing of yeast nuclear and class II mitochondrial introns were identified, but appear not sufficient for the RNA splicing. The primary structure of the yeast DHFR protein has considerable sequence homology with analogous polypeptides from other organisms, especially in the consensus residues involved in cofactor and/or inhibitor binding. Analysis of the nucleotide sequence also revealed the presence of a number of canonical sequences identified in yeast as having some function in the regulation of gene expression. These include UAS elements (TGACTC) required for tIle amino acid general control response, and "TATA H boxes as well as several consensus sequences thought to be required for transcriptional termination and polyadenylation. Analysis of the codon usage of the yeast DFRl coding region revealed a codon bias index of 0.0083. this valve very close to zero suggestes 3 that the gene is expressed at a relatively low level under normal physiological conditions. The information concerning the organization of the DFRl were used to construct a variety of fusions of its 5' regulatory region with the coding region of the lacZ gene of E. coli. Some of such fused genes encoded a fusion product that expressed in E.coli and/or in yeast under the control of the 5' regulatory elements of the DFR1. Further studies with these fusion constructions revealed that the beta-galactosidase activity encoded on multicopy plasmids was stimulated transiently by prior exposure of yeast host cells to UV light. This suggests that the yeast PFRl gene is indu.ced by UV light and nlay in1ply a novel function of DHFR protein in the cellular responses to DNA damage. Another novel f~ature of yeast DHFR was revealed during preliminary studies of a diploid strain containing a heterozygous DFRl null allele. The strain was constructed by insertion of a URA3 gene within the coding region of DFR1. Sporulation of this diploid revealed that meiotic products segregated 2:0 for uracil prototrophy when spore clones were germinated on medium supplemented with 5-formyltetrahydrofolate (folinic acid). This finding suggests that, in addition to its catalytic activity, the DFRl gene product nlay play some role in the anabolisln of folinic acid. Alternatively, this result may indicate that Ura+ haploid segregants were inviable and suggest that the enzyme has an essential cellular function in this species.

Half-sandwich silane complexes of ruthenium and iron : synthesis, structure and application to catalysis

The present thesis describes syntheses, structural studies, and catalytic reactivity of new non-classical silane complexes of ruthenium and iron. The ruthenium complexes CpRu(PPri3)CI(T]2-HSiR3) (1) (SiR3 = SiCh (a), SiClzMe (b), SiCIMe2 (c), SiH2Ph (d), SiMe2Ph (e» were prepared by reactions of the new unsaturated complex CpRu(PPri3)CI with silanes. According to NMR studies and X-ray analyses, the complexes la-c exhibit unusual simultaneous Si··· H and Si··· CI-Ru interactions. The complex CpRu(PPri3)CI was also used for the preparation of the first examples of late transition metal agostic silylamido complexes CpRu(PPri3)(N(T]2-HSiMe2)R) (2) (R= Ar or But), which were characterized by NMR spectroscopy. The iron complexes CpFe(PMePri2)H2(SiR3) (3) (SiR3 = SiCh (a), SiClzMe (b), SiCIMe2 (c), SiH2Ph (d), SiMe2Ph (e» were synthesized by the reaction of the new borohydride iron complex CpFe(PMePri2)(B~) with silanes in the presence NEt3. The complexes 3 exhibit unprecedented two simultaneous and equivalent Si··· H interactions, which was confirmed by X-ray analyses and DFT calculations. A series of cationic ruthenium complexes [CpRu(PR3)(CH3CN)(112-HSiR'3)]BAF (PR3 = PPri 3 (4), PPh3 (5); SiR'3 = SiCh (a), SiClzMe (b), SiClMe2 (c), SiH2Ph (d), SiMe2Ph (e» was obtained by substitution of one of the labile acetonitrile ligands in [CpRu(PR3)(CH3CNh]BAF with sHanes. Analogous complexes [TpRu(PR3)(CH3CN)(T]2 -HSiR' 3)]BAF (5) were obtained by the reaction of TpRu(PR3)(CH3CN)CI with LiBAF in the presence of silanes. The complexes 4-5 were characterized by NMR spectroscopy, and the observed coupling constants J(Si-H) allowed us to estimate the extent of Si-H bond activation in these compounds. The catalytic activity in hydrosilylation reactions of all of the above complexes was examined. The most promising results were achieved with the cationic ruthenium precatalyst [CpRu(PPri3)(CH3CN)2t (6). Complex 6 shows good to excellent catalytic activity in the hydrosilylation of carbonyls, dehydrogenative coupling of silanes with alcohols, amines, acids, and reduction of acid chlorides. We also discovered very selective reduction of nitriles and pyridines into the corresponding N-silyl imines and l,4-dihydropyridines, respectively, at room temperature with the possibility of catalyst recycling. These chemoselective catalytic methods have no analogues in the literature. The reactions were proposed to proceed via an ionic mechanism with intermediate formation of the silane a-complexes 4.

Synthesis of a 7-Membered Biaryl Guanidine Catalyst and its Use in the Vinylogous Aldol Reaction

The present thesis outlines the preparation of a 7-membered guanidine. Initial efforts to obtain this guanidine via 2-chloro-1,3-dimethylimidazolinium chloride induced ring forming chemistry failed to provide the target in a reproducible fashion. Changing strategies, we were able to obtain the desired guanidine through CuCl mediated amination of a 7-membered thiourea intermediate to arrive at the target. In addition, the catalytic activity of this compound was evaluated in a vinylogous aldol reaction of dibromofuranone and four aromatic aldehydes to generate chiral γ-butenolides with modest to good enantiomeric excess. It was found that electron-poor aldehydes resulted in higher, 81% ee, whereas electron rich aldehydes led to low, 41% ee, levels of enantiomeric excess.

Deletion of the RNR4 gene causes hyperresistance to the carcinogen 4-NQO in the yeast model

La stabilité génomique, qui est essentielle à la vie, est possible grâce à la réplication et la réparation de l’ADN. Une des enzymes responsables de la réplication et de la réparation de l’ADN est la ribonucleotide reductase (RNR), qui est retrouvée chez la levure et chez l’humain. Cette enzyme catalyse la formation de déoxyribonucléotides et maintien le pool de dNTP requis pour la réparation et la réplication de l’ADN. L’enzyme RNR est un tétramère α2β2 constitué d’une grande (R1, α2) et d’une petite (R2, β2) sous-unité. Chez S. cerevisiae, les gènes RNR1 et RNR3 encodent la sous-unité α2 (R1). L’activité catalytique de RNR dépend d’une interaction avec le fer et de la formation d’un complexe entre R1 et R2. L’expression de toutes les sous-unités est inductible par les dommages causés à l’ADN. Dans cette étude, nous démontrons que des cellules qui n’expriment pas une des sous-unités, Rnr4, du complexe RNR sont sensibles à divers agents endommageant l’ADN, tels que le méthyl méthane sulfonate, la bléomycine, le péroxyde d’hydrogène et les rayons ultraviolets (UVC 254 nm). Au contraire, le mutant est résistant au 4-nitroquinoline-1- oxide (4-NQO), un composé qui engendre des lésions encombrantes. Par conséquent, le mutant rnr4Δ démontre une réduction marquée en mutations induites par le 4-NQO comparativement à la souche parentale. Nous voulions identifier la voie de réparation de l’ADN qui conférait cette résistance au 4-NQO ainsi que les protéines impliquées. Les voies BER, NER et MMR n’ont pas aboli la résistance au 4-NQO de la souche rnr4Δ. La protéine recombinante Rad51 ne joue pas un rôle critique dans la réparation de l’ADN et dans la résistance au 4-NQO. La délétion du gène REV3, qui encode une polymérase de contournement, impliquée dans la réparation post-réplication, a partiellement aboli la résistance au 4-NQO dans rnr4Δ. Ces résultats suggèrent que la polymérase Rev3 et possiblement d’autres polymérases translésion (Rev1, Rev7, Rad30) pourraient être impliquées dans la réparation de lésions encombrantes dans l’ADN dans des conditions de carence en dNTP. La réparation de l’ADN, un mécanisme complexe chez la levure, implique une vaste gamme de protéines, dont certaines encore inconnues. Nos résultats indiquent qu’il y aurait plus qu’une protéine impliquée dans la résistance au 4-NQO. Des investigations plus approfondies seront nécessaires afin de comprendre la recombinaison et la réparation post-réplication.

Influence du chondroïtine sulfate (CS) sur l’activité et l’expression de plusieurs isoformes du cytochrome P450 et de la NADPH P450 réductase

Le CS fait partie de la famille des SYSADOA (SYmptomatic Slow Acting Drugs for OsteoArthritis) et est utilisé par les patients avec de l’ostéoarthrose de façon chronique pour ses propriétés anti-inflammatoires. Étant donné que ces patients reçoivent d’autres médicaments, il était intéressant de documenter les effets du CS sur le cytochrome P450 et la NADPH-réductase (NADPH). Pour cette étude, deux modèles ont été utilisés: des lapins témoins (LT) et des lapins avec une réaction inflammatoire (LRI) afin de diminuer l’activité et l’expression du CYP. Six groupes contenant chacun cinq lapins ont été utilisés: un groupe sans CS et deux groupes qui ont pris oralement dans l’eau approximativement 20.5 mg/kg/jour de CS pendant 20 et 30 jours; les lapins des trois groupes restants ont pris du CS comme décrit plus haut, mais ont reçu 5 ml sous-cutanées de térébenthine afin de produire une réaction inflammatoire aseptique (RIA) deux jours avant leur sacrifice, c’est-à-dire aux jours -2, 18 et 28. Les hépatocytes ont été isolés pour évaluer l’activité et l’expression du CYP3A6, CYP1A2 et NADPH et aussi le ARNm de ces protéines. In vitro, nous avons étudié l’effet de différentes concentrations de CS-disaccharides sulfatés, 4S, 6S, et 4,6S de CS, sur l’activité et l’expression du CYP1A2 et du CYP3A6. Pour documenter la présence de la réaction inflammatoire, nous avons mesure les mucoprotéines, dans le sérum des lapins avec une réaction inflammatoire. Aussi nous avons mesuré la présence de l’oxide nitrique (NO) chez les hépatocytes de lapins contrôles et chez les hépatocytes des lapins avec une réaction inflammatoire. La translocation nucléaire du NF-κB a été etudiée par fluorescence chez les hépatocytes. Par comparaison aux lapins témoins, l’administration du CS pendant 20 et 30 jours n’affecte pas l’activité du CYP3A6 et du CYP1A2. La RIA a augmenté les mucoprotéines à 95,1±5,7 vs 8,4±1,6 mg/dl dans les lapins témoins (p<0,05). La RIA a diminué l’activité du CYP3A6 de 62% et l’activité du CYP 1A2 de 54%. Le CS n’empêché pas la diminution du CYP1A2 produite par la RIA. Par ailleurs, le CS n’affecte pas l’activité ni l’expression de la NADPH. La translocation nucléaire de NF-κB a été empêche par l’administration chronique de CS aux lapins avec RIA; en plus, la concentration de l’oxide nitrique n’a pas démontré une augmentation en présence de CS; par contre, CS n’empêche pas l’augmentation des séromucoïdes. Au contraire, CS affecte la diminution du CYP3A6 en fonction de temps et secondaire à la RIA. Dans ce group, CS a rétabli le niveau des protéines du CYP3A6 observé dans le group de lapins témoins. Pourtant cette croissance été independante de mRNA qui garde un niveau trés bas. Le plus remarcable a été la manière dont CS a augmenté la protéine du CYP3A6, sans avoir rétabli l’activité de cet isoforme. Finalement, in vitro, CS et ses trois disaccharides sulfatés (4S, 6S et 4,6S) n’affectent ni l’activité ni l’expression de CYP1A2, CYP3A6 et de la NADPH. En conclusion, l’administration chronique de CS n’affecte pas l’activité ni l’expression du CYP1A2, ou la diminution du CYP1A2 produite par la réaction inflammatoire. Le CS n’affecte pas l’activité ni l’expression du NADPH. Cependant, CS empêche la diminution du CYP3A6 en fonction de temps et secondaire à la RIA.

Implication de la voie ERK3/4-MK5 dans la phase G2/M du cycle cellulaire

La division cellulaire est influencée par les différents stimuli provenant de l’extérieur ou de l’intérieur de la cellule. Plusieurs réseaux enzymatiques élaborés au cours de l’évolution relayent l’information générée par ces signaux. Les modules MAP kinases sont extrêmement importants au sein de la cellule. Chez l’humain, 14 MAP kinases sont regroupées en sept voies distinctes intervenant dans le contrôle d’une myriade de processus cellulaires. ERK3/4 sont des homologues de ERK1/2 pour lesquelles on ne connaît que très peu de choses concernant leurs fonctions et régulation. Ces MAP kinases sont dites atypiques puisqu’elles ont des particularités structurales et des modes de régulation qui diffèrent des autres MAP kinases classiques. Ainsi, notre laboratoire a démontré que l’activité de ERK3 est régulée par le système ubiquitine-protéasome et qu’elle pourrait avoir un rôle à jouer dans le contrôle de la différenciation et la prolifération cellulaire. La première étude présentée décrit la régulation de ERK3 au cours du cycle cellulaire. Nous avons observé que ERK3 est hyperphosphorylée et s’accumule spécifiquement au cours de la mitose. Des analyses de spectrométrie de masse ont mené à l’identification de quatre sites de phosphorylation situés à l’extrémité du domaine C-terminal. Nous avons pu démontrer que la kinase mitotique CDK1/cycline B phosphoryle ces sites et que les phosphatases CDC14A et CDC14B les déphosphorylent. Finalement, nous démontrons que la phosphorylation mitotique de ERK3 a pour effet de la stabiliser. Au début de mes études doctorales, la kinase MK5 fut identifiée comme premier partenaire et substrat de ERK3. MK5 a très peu de fonctions connues. Des données dans la littérature suggèrent qu’elle peut moduler le cycle cellulaire dans certaines conditions. Par exemple, MK5 a récemment été identifié comme inducteur de la sénescence induite par l’oncogène Ras. Dans la deuxième étude, nous décrivons une nouvelle fonction de MK5 dans le contrôle du cycle cellulaire. Nous démontrons par des expériences de gain et perte de fonction que MK5 ralentit l’entrée en mitose suite à un arrêt de la réplication. Cette fonction est dépendante de l’activité enzymatique de MK5 qui régule indirectement l’activité de CDK1/cycline B. Finalement, nous avons identifié Cdc25A comme un nouveau substrat in vitro de MK5 dont la surexpression supprime l’effet de MK5 sur l’entrée en mitose. En conclusion, nos résultats décrivent un nouveau mécanisme de régulation de ERK3 au cours de la mitose, ainsi qu’une nouvelle fonction pour MK5 dans le contrôle de l’entrée en mitose en réponse à des stress de la réplication. Ces résultats démontrent pour la première fois l’implication de ces protéines au cours de la transition G2/M. Nos travaux établissent de nouvelles pistes d’études pour mieux comprendre les rôles encore peu définis des kinases ERK3/4-MK5.