A systematic review and meta-analysis of Northern Hemisphere season of birth studies in schizophrenia

Based on the epidemiological finding that individuals with schizophrenia tend to be born in winter/spring when compared to the general population, we examined (1) the strength and timing of this effect in Northern Hemisphere sites, and (2) the correlation between the season of birth effect size and latitude. Studies were located via electronic data sources, published citations, and letters to authors. Inclusion criteria were that studies specify the diagnostic criteria used, that studies specify the counts of schizophrenia and general population births for each month, and that subjects and the general population be drawn from the same birth years and catchment area. We extracted data from eight studies based on 126,196 patients with schizophrenia and 86,605,807 general population births and drawn from 27 Northern Hemisphere sites. Comparing winter/spring versus summer/autumn births, we found a significant excess for winter/spring births (pooled odds ratio = 1.07; 95% confidence interval 1.05, 1.08; population attributable risk = 3.3%). There was a small but significant positive correlation between the odds ratios for the season of birth comparison and latitude (r = 0.271, p < 0.005). Furthermore, the shape of the seasonality in schizophrenia births varied by latitude band. These variations may encourage researchers to generate candidate seasonally fluctuating exposures.

Making the processes of designing explicit within an information technology environment

In this paper, technology is described as involving processes whereby resources are utilised to satisfy human needs or to take advantage of opportunities, to develop practical solutions to problems. This study, set within one type of technology context, information technology, investigated how, through a one semester undergraduate university course, elements of technological processes were made explicit to students. While it was acknowledged in the development and implementation of this course that students needed to learn technical skills, technological skills and knowledge, including design, were seen as vital also, to enable students to think about information technology from a perspective that was not confined and limited to 'technology as hardware and software'. This paper describes how the course, set within a three year program of study, was aimed at helping students to develop their thinking and their knowledge about design processes in an explicit way. An interpretive research approach was used and data sources included a repertory grid 'survey'; student interviews; video recordings of classroom interactions, audio recordings of lectures, observations of classroom interactions made by researchers; and artefacts which included students' journals and portfolios. The development of students' knowledge about design practices is discussed and reflections upon student knowledge development in conjunction with their learning experiences are made. Implications for ensuring explicitness of design practice within information technology contexts are presented, and the need to identify what constitutes design knowledge is argued.

Development of a food composition database for the estimation of dietary intakes of glucosinolates, the biologically active constituents of cruciferous vegetables

Evidence indicates that cruciferous vegetables are protective against a range of cancers with glucosinolates and their breakdown products considered the biologically active constituents. To date, epidemiological studies have not investigated the intakes of these constituents due to a lack of food composition databases. The aim of the present study was to develop a database for the glucosinolate content of cruciferous vegetables that can be used to quantify dietary exposure for use in epidemiological studies of diet-disease relationships. Published food composition data sources for the glucosinolate content of cruciferous vegetables were identified and assessed for data quality using established criteria. Adequate data for the total glucosinolate content were available from eighteen published studies providing 140 estimates for forty-two items. The highest glucosinolate values were for cress (389 mg/100 g) while the lowest values were for Pe-tsai chinese cabbage (20 mg/100 g). There is considerable variation in the values reported for the same vegetable by different studies, with a median difference between the minimum and maximum values of 5.8-fold. Limited analysis of cooked cruciferous vegetables has been conducted; however, the available data show that average losses during cooking are approximately 36 %. This is the first attempt to collate the available literature on the glucosinolate content of cruciferous vegetables. These data will allow quantification of intakes of the glucosinolates, which can be used in epidemiological studies to investigate the role of cruciferous vegetables in cancer aetiology and prevention.

Modelling the population cost-effectiveness of current and evidence-based optimal treatment for anxiety disorders

Background. The present paper describes a component of a large Population cost-effectiveness study that aimed to identify the averted burden and economic efficiency of current and optimal treatment for the major mental disorders. This paper reports on the findings for the anxiety disorders (panic disorder/agoraphobia, social phobia, generalized anxiety disorder, post-traumatic stress disorder and obsessive-compulsive disorder). Method. Outcome was calculated as averted 'years lived with disability' (YLD), a population summary measure of disability burden. Costs were the direct health care costs in 1997-8 Australian dollars. The cost per YLD averted (efficiency) was calculated for those already in contact with the health system for a mental health problem (current care) and for a hypothetical optimal care package of evidence-based treatment for this same group. Data sources included the Australian National Survey of Mental Health and Well-being and published treatment effects and unit costs. Results. Current coverage was around 40% for most disorders with the exception of social phobia at 21%. Receipt of interventions consistent with evidence-based care ranged from 32% of those in contact with services for social phobia to 64% for post-traumatic stress disorder. The cost of this care was estimated at $400 million, resulting in a cost per YLD averted ranging from $7761 for generalized anxiety disorder to $34 389 for panic/agoraphobia. Under optimal care, costs remained similar but health gains were increased substantially, reducing the cost per YLD to < $20 000 for all disorders. Conclusions. Evidence-based care for anxiety disorders would produce greater population health gain at a similar cost to that of current care, resulting in a substantial increase in the cost-effectiveness of treatment.

Genes, morphology and agreement: congruence in Australian anthracine bee flies (Diptera : Bombyliidae : Anthracinae)

Almost half of the 4547 described bee flies (Bombyliidae: Diptera) in the world belong to the subfamily Anthracinae, with most of the world's diversity in three cosmopolitan tribes: Villini, Anthracini and Exoprosopini. Molecular data from 815 base pairs of 16S mitochondrial DNA and morphological characters from species-groups of these tribes in Australia were analysed cladistically. The results show that the relationships between the anthracine tribes reflect those found in a previous morphological analysis. The genera of the Anthracinae in Australia are monophyletic, except for Ligyra Newman, and are assigned to tribes. Although simultaneous analysis of the combined molecular and morphological data produced clades found in both separate analyses, the different data sources are significantly incongruent. We use phylogenetic measures to examine support for the relationships among the Australian Anthracinae inferred by the molecular and morphological data.

Trends in the use of hospital beds by older people in Australia: 1993-2002

Objective: To determine trends in use of Australian acute hospital inpatient services by older patients. Design and data sources: Secondary analysis of hospital data from the Australian Institute of Health and Welfare in the period 1993-94 to 2001-02, with population data for this period from the Australian Bureau of Statistics. Outcome measures: Population-based rates of hospital separations and bed utilisation. Results: The Australian aged population (65 years and older) increased by 18% compared with total population growth of 10%, yet the proportion of hospital beds occupied by older patients remained stable at 47%. The most substantial changes were observed in the population aged 75 years and older, with separations increasing by 89%, length of stay reducing by 35% and bed utilisation increasing by 23%. However, rates of bed utilisation (in relation to population) declined among older groups (10% decline in per capita use in population 75 years and older), but increased in the younger population (1% increase in per capita use in people younger than 65 years). Conclusion: Important trends in use of inpatient services were identified in this study. These trends are contrary to common perception. Ageing of the Australian population was not associated with an increase in the proportion of hospital beds used by older patients.

Lithium for schizophrenia revisited: A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials

Background: Clinicians frequently use lithium to augment antipsychotic medication in schizophrenia. Therefore, we undertook a systematic review and meta-analysis of the use of lithium in the treatment of schizophrenia. Data sources and study selection: Randomized controlled trials examining lithium (as a sole or an adjunctive compound) in participants with schizophrenia or related disorders were searched in the register of the Cochrane Schizophrenia Group. No language restrictions were applied. The Boolean phrase [lithium* or lithicarb or eskalith or lithobid or lithane or cibalith-s or quilonum or hypnorex] was used to locate articles. The search strategy initially identified 90 references. The authors of the included studies were contacted to obtain original patient data. The data were combined in a meta-analysis. The main outcome parameters were the number of patients with a clinically significant response and the number of patients leaving the studies early. Results: The meta-analysis includes 20 studies (N = 611). The evidence shows that lithium as a sole agent is ineffective in the treatment of schizophrenia. Eleven trials examined the augmentation of antipsychotics with lithium. More patients who received lithium augmentation than those who received antipsychotics alone were classified as responders. However, the superiority was not consistent across different response thresholds, and when patients with prominent affective symptoms were excluded from the analysis, the advantage of lithium augmentation was not significant (p = .07). Significantly more patients taking lithium left the trials early, suggesting a lower acceptability of lithium augmentation compared with that of taking antipsychotics alone. Conclusion: Despite some evidence in favor of lithium augmentation, the overall results are inconclusive. A large trial of lithium augmentation of antipsychotic medications will be required in order to detect a benefit of small effect size in patients with schizophrenia who lack affective symptoms.

Water quality monitoring: A combined approach to investigate gradients of change in the Great Barrier Reef, Australia

For the managers of a region as large as the Great Barrier Reef, it is a challenge to develop a cost effective monitoring program, with appropriate temporal and spatial resolution to detect changes in water quality. The current study compares water quality data (phytoplankton abundance and water clarity) from remote sensing with field sampling (continuous underway profiles of water quality and fixed site sampling) at different spatial scales in the Great Barrier Reef north of Mackay (20 degrees S). Five transects (20-30 km long) were conducted from clean oceanic water to the turbid waters adjacent to the mainland. The different data sources demonstrated high correlations when compared on a similar spatial scale (18 fixed sites). However, each data source also contributed unique information that could not be obtained by the other techniques. A combination of remote sensing, underway sampling and fixed stations will deliver the best spatial and temporal monitoring of water quality in the Great Barrier Reef. (c) 2004 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Do squash players accurately report use of appropriate protective eyewear?

Self-report surveys are a common method of collecting data on protective equipment use in sport. The aim of this study was to assess the validity of self-reported use of appropriate protective eyewear by squash players. Surveys of squash players' appropriate protective eyewear behaviours were conducted over two consecutive years (2002 and 2003) at randomly-selected squash venues in Melbourne, Australia. Over the two years, 1219 adult players were surveyed (response rate of 92%). Trained observers also recorded the actual on-court appropriate protective eyewear behaviours of all players during the survey sessions. Eyewear use rates calculated from both data sources were compared. The self-reported appropriate protective eyewear use rate (9.4%; 95% CI 7.8, 11.0) was significantly higher (1.6 times more) than the observed rate (5.9%; 95%CI 4.6, 7.2). This suggests that players may over-report their use of appropriate protective equipment, though some may have incorrectly classified their eyewear as being appropriate or suitably protective. Studies that rely only on self-report data on protective equipment use need to take into account that this could lead to biased estimates.

Deriving matrix of peptide-MHC interactions in diabetic mouse by genetic algorithm

Finding motifs that can elucidate rules that govern peptide binding to medically important receptors is important for screening targets for drugs and vaccines. This paper focuses on elucidation of peptide binding to I-A(g7) molecule of the non-obese diabetic (NOD) mouse - an animal model for insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus (IDDM). A number of proposed motifs that describe peptide binding to I-A(g7) have been proposed. These motifs results from independent experimental studies carried out on small data sets. Testing with multiple data sets showed that each of the motifs at best describes only a subset of the solution space, and these motifs therefore lack generalization ability. This study focuses on seeking a motif with higher generalization ability so that it can predict binders in all A(g7) data sets with high accuracy. A binding score matrix representing peptide binding motif to A(g7) was derived using genetic algorithm (GA). The evolved score matrix significantly outperformed previously reported

Early practical experience and the social responsiveness of clinical education: Systematic review

Objectives To find how early experience in clinical and community settings (early experience) affects medical education, and identify strengths and limitations of the available evidence. Design A systematic review rating, by consensus, the strength and importance of outcomes reported in the decade 1992-2001. Data sources Bibliographical databases and journals were searched for publications on the topic, reviewed under the auspices of the recently formed Best Evidence Medical Education (BEME) collaboration. Selection of studies All empirical studies (verifiable, observational data) were included, whatever their design, method, or language of publication. Results Early experience was most commonly provided in community settings, aiming to recruit primary care practitioners for underserved populations. It increased the popularity of primary care residencies, albeit among self selected students. It fostered self awareness and empathic attitudes towards ill people, boosted students' confidence, motivated them, gave them satisfaction, and helped them develop a professional identity. By helping develop interpersonal skills, it made entering clerkships a less stressful experience. Early experience helped students learn about professional roles and responsibilities, healthcare systems, and health needs of a population. It made biomedical, behavioural, and social sciences more relevant and easier to learn. It motivated and rewarded teachers and patients and enriched curriculums. In some countries,junior students provided preventive health care directly to underserved populations. Conclusion Early experience helps medical students learn, helps them develop appropriate attitudes towards their studies and future practice, and orientates medical curriculums towards society's needs. Experimental evidence of its benefit is unlikely to be forthcoming and yet more medical schools are likely to provide it. Effort could usefully be concentrated on evaluating the methods and outcomes of early experience provided within non-experimental research designs, and using that evaluation to improve the quality of curriculums.

Is Lactobacillus rhamnosus GG effective in preventing the onset of antibiotic-associated diarrhoea: A systematic review

Objective: To evaluate the efficacy of Lactobacillus rhamnosus GG in the prevention of antibiotic-associated diarrhoea. Data Sources: A computer-based search of MED-LINE, CINAHL, AMED, the Cochrane Controlled Trials Register and the Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews was conducted. A hand-search of the bibliographies of relevant papers and previous meta-analyses was undertaken. Review Methods: Trials were included in the review if they compared the effects of L. rhamnosus GG and placebo and listed diarrhoea as a primary end-point. Studies were excluded if they were not placebo-controlled or utilised other probiotic strains. Results:Six trials were found that met all eligibility requirements. Significant statistical heterogeneity of the trials precluded meta-analysis. Four of the six trials found a significant reduction in the risk of antibiotic-associated diarrhoea with co-administration of Lactobacillus GG. One of the trials found a reduced number of days with antibiotic-induced diarrhoea with Lactobacillus GG administration, whilst the final trial found no benefit of Lactobacillus GG supplementation. Conclusion: Additional research is needed to further clarify the effectiveness of Lactobacillus GG in the prevention of antibiotic-associated diarrhoea. Copyright (c) 2005 S. Karger AG, Basel.

Information integration in molecular bioscience

Integrating information in the molecular biosciences involves more than the cross-referencing of sequences or structures. Experimental protocols, results of computational analyses, annotations and links to relevant literature form integral parts of this information, and impart meaning to sequence or structure. In this review, we examine some existing approaches to integrating information in the molecular biosciences. We consider not only technical issues concerning the integration of heterogeneous data sources and the corresponding semantic implications, but also the integration of analytical results. Within the broad range of strategies for integration of data and information, we distinguish between platforms and developments. We discuss two current platforms and six current developments, and identify what we believe to be their strengths and limitations. We identify key unsolved problems in integrating information in the molecular biosciences, and discuss possible strategies for addressing them including semantic integration using ontologies, XML as a data model, and graphical user interfaces as integrative environments.

Automatic building detection using the Dempster-Shafer algorithm

An approach and strategy for automatic detection of buildings from aerial images using combined image analysis and interpretation techniques is described in this paper. It is undertaken in several steps. A dense DSM is obtained by stereo image matching and then the results of multi-band classification, the DSM, and Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) are used to reveal preliminary building interest areas. From these areas, a shape modeling algorithm has been used to precisely delineate their boundaries. The Dempster-Shafer data fusion technique is then applied to detect buildings from the combination of three data sources by a statistically-based classification. A number of test areas, which include buildings of different sizes, shape, and roof color have been investigated. The tests are encouraging and demonstrate that all processes in this system are important for effective building detection.

Risk of serious NSAID-related gastrointestinal events during long-term exposure: a systematic review

Objective: Exposure to non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) is associated wit increased risk of serious gastrointestinal (GI) events compared with non-exposure. We investigated whether that risk is sustained over time. Data sources: Cochrane Controlled Trials Register (to 2002); MEDLINE, EMBASE, Derwent Drug File and Current Contents (1999-2002); manual searching of reviews (1999-2002). Study selection: From 479 search results reviewed and 221 articles retrieved, seven studies of patients exposed to prescription non-selective NSAIDs for more than 6 months and reporting time-dependent serious GI event rates were selected for quantitative data synthesis. These were stratified into two groups by study design. Data extraction: Incidence of GI events and number of patients at specific time points were extracted. Data synthesis: Meta-regression analyses were performed. Change in risk was evaluated by testing whether the slope of the regression line declined over time. Four randomised controlled trials (RCTs) provided evaluable data from five NSAID arms (aspirin, naproxen, two ibuprofen arms, and diclofenac). When the RCT data were combined, a small significant decline in annualised risk was seen: -0.005% (95% Cl, -0.008% to -0.001%) per month. Sensitivity analyses were conducted because there was disparity within the RCT data. The pooled estimate from three cohort studies showed no significant decline in annualised risk over periods up to 2 years: -0.003% (95% Cl, -0.008% to 0.003%) per month. Conclusions: Small decreases in risk over time were observed; these were of negligible clinical importance. For patients who need long-term (> 6 months) treatment, precautionary measures should be considered to reduce the net probability of serious GI events over the anticipated treatment duration. The effect of intermittent versus regular daily therapy on long-term risk needs further investigation.