Principal components of functional connectivity: A new approach to study dynamic brain connectivity during rest.

Functional connectivity (FC) as measured by correlation between fMRI BOLD time courses of distinct brain regions has revealed meaningful organization of spontaneous fluctuations in the resting brain. However, an increasing amount of evidence points to non-stationarity of FC; i.e., FC dynamically changes over time reflecting additional and rich information about brain organization, but representing new challenges for analysis and interpretation. Here, we propose a data-driven approach based on principal component analysis (PCA) to reveal hidden patterns of coherent FC dynamics across multiple subjects. We demonstrate the feasibility and relevance of this new approach by examining the differences in dynamic FC between 13 healthy control subjects and 15 minimally disabled relapse-remitting multiple sclerosis patients. We estimated whole-brain dynamic FC of regionally-averaged BOLD activity using sliding time windows. We then used PCA to identify FC patterns, termed "eigenconnectivities", that reflect meaningful patterns in FC fluctuations. We then assessed the contributions of these patterns to the dynamic FC at any given time point and identified a network of connections centered on the default-mode network with altered contribution in patients. Our results complement traditional stationary analyses, and reveal novel insights into brain connectivity dynamics and their modulation in a neurodegenerative disease.

Jasmonate biochemical pathway.

Plants possess an interrelated family of potent fatty acid-derived regulators-the jasmonates. These compounds, which play roles in both defense and development, are derived from tri-unsaturated fatty acids [alpha-linolenic acid (18:3) or 7Z,10Z,13Z-hexadecatrienoic acid (16:3)]. The lipoxygenase-catalyzed addition of molecular oxygen to alpha-linolenic acid initiates jasmonate synthesis by providing a 13-hydroperoxide substrate for the formation of an unstable allene oxide that is then subject to enzyme-guided cyclization to produce 12-oxo-phytodienoic acid (OPDA). OPDA has several fates, including esterification into plastid lipids or transformation into the 12-carbon co-regulator jasmonic acid (JA). JA, the best-characterized member of the family, regulates both male and female fertility (depending on the plant species) and is an important mediator of defense gene expression. JA is itself a substrate for further diverse modifications. Genetic dissection of the pathway is revealing how the different jasmonates modulate different physiological processes. Each new family member that is discovered provides another key to understanding the fine control of gene expression in immune responses, in the initiation and maintenance of long-distance signal transfer in response to wounding, in the regulation of fertility, and in the turnover, inactivation, and sequestration of jasmonates, among other processes. The Jasmonate Biochemical Pathway provides an overview of the growing jasmonate family, and new members will be included in future versions of the Connections Map.

Cellular and molecular mechanisms underlying the effects of sleep loss on hippocampal synaptic plasticity

SUMMARY : The function of sleep for the organism is one of the most persistent and perplexing questions in biology. Current findings lead to the conclusion that sleep is primarily for the brain. In particular, a role for sleep in cognitive aspects of brain function is supported by behavioral evidence both in humans and animals. However, in spite of remarkable advancement in the understanding of the mechanisms underlying sleep generation and regulation, it has been proven difficult to determine the neurobiological mechanisms underlying the beneficial effect of sleep, and the detrimental impact of sleep loss, on learning and memory processes. In my thesis, I present results that lead to several critical steps forward in the link between sleep and cognitive function. My major result is the molecular identification and physiological analysis of a protein, the NR2A subunit of NMDA receptor (NMDAR), that confers sensitivity to sleep loss to the hippocampus, a brain structure classically involved in mnemonic processes. Specifically, I used a novel behavioral approach to achieve sleep deprivation in adult C57BL6/J mice, yet minimizing the impact of secondary factors associated with the procedure,.such as stress. By using in vitro electrophysiological analysis, I show, for the first time, that sleep loss dramatically affects bidirectional plasticity at CA3 to CA1 synapses in the hippocampus, a well established cellular model of learning and memory. 4-6 hours of sleep loss elevate the modification threshold for bidirectional synaptic plasticity (MT), thereby promoting long-term depression of CA3 to CA 1 synaptic strength after stimulation in the theta frequency range (5 Hz), and rendering long-term potentiation induction.more difficult. Remarkably, 3 hours of recovery sleep, after the deprivation, reset the MT at control values, thus re-establishing the normal proneness of synapses to undergo long-term plastic changes. At the molecular level, these functional changes are paralleled by a change in the NMDAR subunit composition. In particular, the expression of the NR2A subunit protein of NMDAR at CA3 to CA1 synapses is selectively and rapidly increased by sleep deprivation, whereas recovery sleep reset NR2A synaptic content to control levels. By using an array of genetic, pharmacological and computational approaches, I demonstrate here an obligatory role for NR2A-containing NMDARs in conveying the effect of sleep loss on CA3 to CAl MT. Moreover, I show that a genetic deletion of the NR2A subunit fully preserves hippocampal plasticity from the impact of sleep loss, whereas it does not alter sleepwake behavior and homeostatic response to sleep deprivation. As to the mechanism underlying the effects of the NR2A subunit on hippocampal synaptic plasticity, I show that the increased NR2A expression after sleep loss distinctly affects the contribution of synaptic and more slowly recruited NMDAR pools activated during plasticity-induction protocols. This study represents a major step forward in understanding the mechanistic basis underlying sleep's role for the brain. By showing that sleep and sleep loss affect neuronal plasticity by regulating the expression and function of a synaptic neurotransmitter receptor, I propose that an important aspect of sleep function could consist in maintaining and regulating protein redistribution and ion channel trafficking at central synapses. These findings provide a novel starting point for investigations into the connections between sleep and learning, and they may open novel ways for pharmacological control over hippocampal .function during periods of sleep restriction. RÉSUMÉ DU PROJET La fonction du sommeil pour l'organisme est une des questions les plus persistantes et difficiles dans la biologie. Les découvertes actuelles mènent à la conclusion que le sommeil est essentiel pour le cerveau. En particulier, le rôle du sommeil dans les aspects cognitifs est soutenu par des études comportementales tant chez les humains que chez les animaux. Cependant, malgré l'avancement remarquable dans la compréhension des mécanismes sous-tendant la génération et la régulation du sommeil, les mécanismes neurobiologiques qui pourraient expliquer l'effet favorable du sommeil sur l'apprentissage et la mémoire ne sont pas encore clairs. Dans ma thèse, je présente des résultats qui aident à clarifier le lien entre le sommeil et la fonction cognitive. Mon résultat le plus significatif est l'identification moléculaire et l'analyse physiologique d'une protéine, la sous-unité NR2A du récepteur NMDA, qui rend l'hippocampe sensible à la perte de sommeil. Dans cette étude, nous avons utilisé une nouvelle approche expérimentale qui nous a permis d'induire une privation de sommeil chez les souris C57BL6/J adultes, en minimisant l'impact de facteurs confondants comme, par exemple, le stress. En utilisant les techniques de l'électrophysiologie in vitro, j'ai démontré, pour la première fois, que la perte de sommeil est responsable d'affecter radicalement la plasticité bidirectionnelle au niveau des synapses CA3-CA1 de l'hippocampe. Cela correspond à un mécanisme cellulaire de l'apprentissage et de la mémoire bien établi. En particulier, 4-6 heures de privation de sommeil élèvent le seuil de modification pour la plasticité synaptique bidirectionnelle (SM). Comme conséquence, la dépression à long terme de la transmission synaptique est induite par la stimulation des fibres afférentes dans la bande de fréquences thêta (5 Hz), alors que la potentialisation à long terme devient plus difficile. D'autre part, 3 heures de sommeil de récupération sont suffisant pour rétablir le SM aux valeurs contrôles. Au niveau moléculaire, les changements de la plasticité synaptiques sont associés à une altération de la composition du récepteur NMDA. En particulier, l'expression synaptique de la protéine NR2A du récepteur NMDA est rapidement augmentée de manière sélective par la privation de sommeil, alors que le sommeil de récupération rétablit l'expression de la protéine au niveau contrôle. En utilisant des approches génétiques, pharmacologiques et computationnelles, j'ai démontré que les récepteurs NMDA qui expriment la sous-unité NR2A sont responsables de l'effet de la privation de sommeil sur le SM. De plus, nous avons prouvé qu'une délétion génétique de la sous-unité NR2A préserve complètement la plasticité synaptique hippocampale de l'impact de la perte de sommeil, alors que cette manipulation ne change pas les mécanismes de régulation homéostatique du sommeil. En ce qui concerne les mécanismes, j'ai .découvert que l'augmentation de l'expression de la sous-unité NR2A au niveau synaptique modifie les propriétés de la réponse du récepteur NMDA aux protocoles de stimulations utilisés pour induire la plasticité. Cette étude représente un pas en avant important dans la compréhension de la base mécaniste sous-tendant le rôle du sommeil pour le cerveau. En montrant que le sommeil et la perte de sommeil affectent la plasticité neuronale en régulant l'expression et la fonction d'un récepteur de la neurotransmission, je propose qu'un aspect important de la fonction du sommeil puisse être finalisé au règlement de la redistribution des protéines et du tracking des récepteurs aux synapses centraux. Ces découvertes fournissent un point de départ pour mieux comprendre les liens entre le sommeil et l'apprentissage, et d'ailleurs, ils peuvent ouvrir des voies pour des traitements pharmacologiques dans le .but de préserver la fonction hippocampale pendant les périodes de restriction de sommeil.

The DART classification of unannotated transcription within the ENCODE regions: associating transcription with known and novel loci

For the ∼1% of the human genome in the ENCODE regions, only about half of the transcriptionally active regions (TARs) identified with tiling microarrays correspond to annotated exons. Here we categorize this large amount of “unannotated transcription.” We use a number of disparate features to classify the 6988 novel TARs—array expression profiles across cell lines and conditions, sequence composition, phylogenetic profiles (presence/absence of syntenic conservation across 17 species), and locations relative to genes. In the classification, we first filter out TARs with unusual sequence composition and those likely resulting from cross-hybridization. We then associate some of those remaining with proximal exons having correlated expression profiles. Finally, we cluster unclassified TARs into putative novel loci, based on similar expression and phylogenetic profiles. To encapsulate our classification, we construct a Database of Active Regions and Tools (DART.gersteinlab.org). DART has special facilities for rapidly handling and comparing many sets of TARs and their heterogeneous features, synchronizing across builds, and interfacing with other resources. Overall, we find that ∼14% of the novel TARs can be associated with known genes, while ∼21% can be clustered into ∼200 novel loci. We observe that TARs associated with genes are enriched in the potential to form structural RNAs and many novel TAR clusters are associated with nearby promoters. To benchmark our classification, we design a set of experiments for testing the connectivity of novel TARs. Overall, we find that 18 of the 46 connections tested validate by RT-PCR and four of five sequenced PCR products confirm connectivity unambiguously.

Asymmetry of Functional Connectivity in Schizophrenia at Different Spatial Scales

Introduction: The interhemispheric asymmetries that originate from connectivity-related structuring of the cerebral cortex are compromised in schizophrenia (SZ). Recently, we have revealed the whole-head topography of EEG synchronization in SZ (Jalili et al. 2007; Knyazeva et al. 2008). Here we extended the analysis to assess the abnormality in the asymmetry of synchronization, which is further motivated by the evidence that the interhemispheric asymmetries suspected to be abnormal in SZ originate from the connectivity-related structuring of the cortex. Methods: Thirteen right-handed SZ patients and thirteen matched controls, participated in this study and the multichannel (128) EEGs were recorded for 3-5 minutes at rest. Then, Laplacian EEG (LEEG) were calculated using a 2-D spline. The LEEGs were analysis through calculating the power spectral density using Welch's average periodogram method. Furthermore, using a state-space based multivariate synchronization measure, S-estimator, we analyzed the correlate of the functional cortico-cortical connectivity in SZ patients compared to the controls. The values of S-estimator were obtained at three different special scales: first-order neighbors for each sensor location, second-order neighbors, and the whole hemisphere. The synchronization measures based on LEEG of alpha and beta bands were applied and tuned to various spatial scales including local, intraregional, and long-distance levels. To assess the between-group differences, we used a permutation version of Hotelling's T2 test. For correlation analysis, Spearman Rank Correlation was calculated. Results: Compared to the controls, who had rightward asymmetry at a local level (LEEG power), rightward anterior and leftward posterior asymmetries at an intraregional level (first- and second-order S-estimator), and rightward global asymmetry (hemispheric S-estimator), SZ patients showed generally attenuated asymmetry, the effect being strongest for intraregional synchronization. This deviation in asymmetry across the anterior-to-posterior axis is consistent with the cerebral form of the so-called Yakovlevian or anticlockwise cerebral torque. Moreover, the negative occipital and positive frontal asymmetry values suggest higher regional synchronization among the left occipital and the right frontal locations relative to their symmetrical counterparts. Correlation analysis linked the posterior intraregional and hemispheric abnormalities to the negative SZ symptoms, whereas the asymmetry of LEEG power appeared to be weakly coupled to clinical ratings. The posterior intraregional abnormalities of asymmetry were shown to increase with the duration of the disease. The tentative links between these findings and gross anatomical asymmetries, including the cerebral torque and gyrification pattern in normal subjects and SZ patients, are discussed. Conclusions: Overall, our findings reveal the abnormalities in the synchronization asymmetry in SZ patients and heavy involvement of the right hemisphere in these abnormalities. These results indicate that anomalous asymmetry of cortico-cortical connections in schizophrenia is amenable to electrophysiological analysis.

On codes, matroids, and secure multiparty computation from linear secret-sharing schemes

Error-correcting codes and matroids have been widely used in the study of ordinary secret sharing schemes. In this paper, the connections between codes, matroids, and a special class of secret sharing schemes, namely, multiplicative linear secret sharing schemes (LSSSs), are studied. Such schemes are known to enable multiparty computation protocols secure against general (nonthreshold) adversaries.Two open problems related to the complexity of multiplicative LSSSs are considered in this paper. The first one deals with strongly multiplicative LSSSs. As opposed to the case of multiplicative LSSSs, it is not known whether there is an efficient method to transform an LSSS into a strongly multiplicative LSSS for the same access structure with a polynomial increase of the complexity. A property of strongly multiplicative LSSSs that could be useful in solving this problem is proved. Namely, using a suitable generalization of the well-known Berlekamp–Welch decoder, it is shown that all strongly multiplicative LSSSs enable efficient reconstruction of a shared secret in the presence of malicious faults. The second one is to characterize the access structures of ideal multiplicative LSSSs. Specifically, the considered open problem is to determine whether all self-dual vector space access structures are in this situation. By the aforementioned connection, this in fact constitutes an open problem about matroid theory, since it can be restated in terms of representability of identically self-dual matroids by self-dual codes. A new concept is introduced, the flat-partition, that provides a useful classification of identically self-dual matroids. Uniform identically self-dual matroids, which are known to be representable by self-dual codes, form one of the classes. It is proved that this property also holds for the family of matroids that, in a natural way, is the next class in the above classification: the identically self-dual bipartite matroids.

Identity formation in social networks websites: facebook and the interaction between young individuals in the cases of Slovenia and Catalonia

This paper lays down some theoretical framework for further research to be made on the subject of how identity of young Slovenian and Catalan users is forming within the social networking website Facebook. The author pursues his interest based on observation of how communicationand thus interaction between users is changing and how this is reflected in everyday practices. In so doing he tries to identify the connections between the individual, society and technology, asthese are more and more interwoven, and we cannot think one without the other in thecontemporary globalised world.

La evaluación de la creatividad publicitaria en el ámbito docente. Análisis teórico y proyecto de investigación

La docencia de la creatividad publicitaria convive con diversas contradicciones y vacíos. Si esto es propio de cualquier materia de estudio, aquí se suma el peculiar curso científico tanto de la creatividad como de la publicidad, dos fenómenos de descomunal repercusión social, cultural y económica, aparentemente asequibles, pero en gran medida desconocidos.El presente trabajo indaga en la posibilidad de sistematizar la evaluación de la creatividad publicitaria y estima el valor docente de dicha sistematización. En una primera fase se exploran los ámbitos de referencia que afectan al tópico, así comolas conexiones que establecen entre ellos, en la esfera académica y profesional. A continuación se orientan y discuten los hallazgos de la prospección, se formula una hipótesis y se diseña una investigación que conduzca a validarla o refutarla.

Effect of controlled co-delivery of synergistic neurotrophic factors on early nerve regeneration in rats.

Present interventions to repair severed peripheral nerves provide slow and poor early axonal regeneration, which may cause unsatisfactory functional reinnervation. To improve early axonal regeneration in a 10 mm rat sciatic nerve gap model, we developed collagen nerve conduits loaded with the synergistically acting glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor (GDNF) and nerve growth factor (NGF). For controlling the concomitant GDNF and NGF release, the collagen tubes were cross-linked by a dehydro-thermal treatment (110 degrees C; 20 mbar; 5 days) prior to impregnating the tubes with GDNF and NGF and by coating drug-loaded tubes with layers of poly(lactide-co-glycolide). The conduits made of cross-linked collagen released low initial amounts of GDNF and NGF (2% of both during first 3 days) and enhanced significantly the early (2 weeks) nerve regeneration in terms of axonal outgrowth and Schwann cell migration in a 10 mm rat sciatic nerve gap model, as compared to the conduits made of non-cross-linked collagen releasing higher initial amounts of GDNF and NGF (12-16% within 3 days), or those releasing GDNF alone. The enhancement of early axonal regeneration using controlled co-delivery of multiple synergistic neurotrophic factors is an important requisite for eventually establishing functional connections with the target organ.

Elokuvien levittäminen Internetissä

Movie distribution on the Internet has become more common in recent years along with fast broadband internet connections. The problem so far has been that the greatest part of movie distribution on the Internet has been illegal. This is about to change because the major film distributors are finally starting to rent and sell movies more and more on the Internet due to their growing confidence in new copy protection methods. The importance of movie online distribution to the movie industry is still tiny but it is increasing rapidly as is investing in new business models and distribution methods in the USA and Europe. This thesis examines the basic concepts of online movie distribution, such as distribution techniques and copy protection, the main companies that rent and sell movies on the internet and their business models, the effects of movie piracy and non-commercial distribution channels. The intention was to provide the reader with an overview of different aspects of movie distribution on the Internet and its future. The conclusion was that movie distribution on the Internet will play a bigger financial part in the future although it was still too early to say just how significant that will be. We will probably see many corresponding distribution techniques, like peer-to-peer networks and streaming servers distributing and broadcasting movies to different end-user platforms like television, PC and portable media players. Internet distribution of movies will not revolutionize movie distribution in the next couple of years but it will make possible new efficient and inexpensive ways to distribute movies globally which will in turn increase the possibilities for revenue, especially for small independent movie producers and distributors.

Adaptive strategy for the statistical analysis of connectomes.

We study an adaptive statistical approach to analyze brain networks represented by brain connection matrices of interregional connectivity (connectomes). Our approach is at a middle level between a global analysis and single connections analysis by considering subnetworks of the global brain network. These subnetworks represent either the inter-connectivity between two brain anatomical regions or by the intra-connectivity within the same brain anatomical region. An appropriate summary statistic, that characterizes a meaningful feature of the subnetwork, is evaluated. Based on this summary statistic, a statistical test is performed to derive the corresponding p-value. The reformulation of the problem in this way reduces the number of statistical tests in an orderly fashion based on our understanding of the problem. Considering the global testing problem, the p-values are corrected to control the rate of false discoveries. Finally, the procedure is followed by a local investigation within the significant subnetworks. We contrast this strategy with the one based on the individual measures in terms of power. We show that this strategy has a great potential, in particular in cases where the subnetworks are well defined and the summary statistics are properly chosen. As an application example, we compare structural brain connection matrices of two groups of subjects with a 22q11.2 deletion syndrome, distinguished by their IQ scores.

In-vivo magnetic resonance imaging of the structural core of the Papez circuit in humans.

Papez circuit is one of the major pathways of the limbic system, and it is involved in the control of memory and emotion. Structural and functional alterations have been reported in psychiatric, neurodegenerative, and epileptic diseases. Despite the clinical interest, however, in-vivo imaging of the entire circuit remains a technological challenge. We used magnetic resonance diffusion spectrum imaging to comprehensively picture the Papez circuit in healthy humans: (i) the hippocampus-mammillary body pathway, (ii) the connections between the lateral subiculum and the cingulate cortex, and (iii) the mammillo-thalamic tract. The diagnostic and therapeutic implications of these results are discussed in the context of recent findings reporting the involvement of the Papez circuit in neurological and psychiatric diseases.

Diagnosi de necessitats socials i educatives de l'aula multilingüe: aproximació des del cas de matemàtiques

El nostre objectiu principal ha estat estudiar el desenvolupament de competències discursives de l’alumnat (d’origen) estranger que contribueixin a entendre i atendre les seves necessitats socials i educatives a l’aula (de matemàtiques) multilingüe. Amb aquesta intenció, hem dut a terme accions científiques a dos nivells: amb professorat i amb estudiants. Quant a la caracterització de la complexitat normativa de l’aula de matemàtiques multilingüe, tal com estava previst: 1) hem exemplificat diverses normes socials i lingüístiques existents en el desenvolupament de pràctiques matemàtiques a l’aula; i 2) hem particularitzat el fenomen de la diversitat de normes socials i lingüístiques en casos de sessions de classe de secundària. Quant a la documentació d'indicadors de progrés en la comprensió de normes socials i lingüístiques de l’aula, i en el desenvolupament de competències discursives d’adequació a aquestes normes, tal com estava previst: 1) hem caracteritzat estratègies d’ensenyament i aprenentatge de normes socials i lingüístiques en situacions d’interacció social en petit i gran grup; i 2) hem construït criteris de seguiment del grau de desenvolupament de competències discursives d’adequació a les normes, tant pel que a professorat com alumnat. Finalment, quant a l'anàlisi de la contribució de les competències discursives a la construcció d’identitats socials, lingüístiques i matemàtiques compartides: 1) hem estudiat els usos que l’estudiant (d’origen) estranger fa de normes escolars vinculades a pràctiques socials, lingüístiques i matemàtiques; i 2) hem examinat la construcció de significats socials, lingüístics i matemàtics compartits en un ampli ventall de processos d’adequació a normes de l’aula orquestrades pel professorat de la nostra mostra.

Covariant Phase Observables in Quantum Mechanics

The aim of this thesis is to present a solution to the quantum phase problem of the single-mode optical field. The solution is based on the use of phase shift covariant normalized positive operator measures. These measures describe realistic direct coherent state phase measurements such as the phase measurement schemes based on eight-port homodyne detection or heterodyne detection. The structure of covariant operator measures and, more generally, covariant sesquilinear form measures is analyzed in this work. Four different characterizations for phase shift covariant normalized positive operator measures are presented. The canonical covariant operator measure is definded and its properties are studied. Finally, some other suggested phase theories are introduced to investigate their connections to the covariant sesquilinear form measures.

Distribution of neuronal and metabolic markers in the human auditory cortex

SUMMARY The human auditory cortex, located on the supratemporal plane of the temporal lobe, is divided in a primary auditory area and several non-primary areas surrounding it. These different areas show anatomical and functional differences. Many studies have focussed on auditory areas in non-human primates, using investigation techniques such as electrophysiological recordings, tracing of neural connections, or immunohistochemical and histochemical staining. Some of these studies have suggested parallel and hierarchical organization of the cortical auditory areas as well as subcortical auditory relays. In humans, only few studies have investigated these regions immunohistochemically, but activation and lesion studies speak in favour of parallel and hierarchical organization, very similar to that of non-human primates. Calcium-binding proteins and metabolic markers were used to investigate possible correlates of hierarchical and parallel organization in man. Calcium-binding proteins, parvalbumin, calretinin and calbindin, modulate the concentration of intracellular free calcium ions and were found in distinct subpopulations of GABAergic neurons in non-human primates species. In our study, their distribution showed several differences between auditory areas: the primary auditory area was darkly stained for both parvalbumin and calbindin, and their expression rapidly decreased while moving away from the primary area. This staining pattern suggests a hierarchical organization of the areas, in which the more darkly stained areas could correspond to an earlier integration level and the areas showing light staining may correspond to higher level integration areas. Parallel organization of primary and non-primary auditory areas was suggested by the complementarity, within a given area, between parvalbumin and calbindin expression across layers. To investigate the possible differences in the energetic metabolism of the cortical auditory areas, several metabolic markers were used: cytochrome oxidase and LDH1 were used as oxidative metabolism markers and LDH5 was used as glycolytic metabolism marker. The results obtained show a difference in the expression of enzymes involved in oxidative metabolism between areas. In the primary auditory area the oxidative metabolism markers were maximally expressed in layer IV. In contrast, higher order areas showed maximal staining in supragranular layers. The expression of LDH5 varied in patches, but did not differ between the different hierarchical auditory areas. The distribution of the two LDH enzymes isoforms also provides information about cellular aspects of metabolic organization, since neurons expressed the LDH1 isoform whereas astrocytes express primarily LDH5, but some astrocytes also contained the LDH1 isoform. This cellular distribution pattern supports the hypothesis of the existence of an astrocyte-neuron lactate shuttle, previously suggested in rodent studies, and in particular of lactate transfer from astrocytes, which produce lactate from the glucose obtained from the circulation, to neurons that use lactate as energy substrate. In conclusion, the hypothesis of parallel and hierarchical organization of the auditory areas can be supported by CaBPs, cytochrome oxidase and LDH1 distribution. Moreover, the two LDHs cellular distribution pattern support the hypothesis of an astrocyte-neuron lactate shuttle in human cortex.