Automatische objektive Identifikation und Berechnung der Eigenschaften von Rossbywellenzügen

In dieser Arbeit wird eine Methode entwickelt, die Rossbywellenzüge automatisch identifiziert und und deren Eigenschaften quantifiziert. Mit dieser Methode wird der Wellenzug als eine Einheit in Raum und Zeit interpretiert. Einheit im Raum heißt, dass nicht die einzelnen Tröge und Rücken eines Wellenzugs betrachtet werden, sondern deren Einhüllende. Einheit in der Zeit bedeutet, dass der Wellenzug nicht nur zu einem Zeitpunkt betrachtet wird, sondern über seine gesamte Lebensdauer hinweg. Um den Wellenzug als räumliche und zeitliche Einheit zu erhalten, werden die Einhüllenden der Wellenzüge in Längengrad-Zeit Diagrammen, sogenannten Hovmöllerdiagrammen, betrachtet. Dort werden zusammenhängende Regionen als Objekte, die jeweils einen Wellenzug repräsentieren, identifiziert. Deren Eigenschaften werden dann automatisch berechnet. Diese Eigenschaften können nun direkt dem zugrunde liegenden Rossbywellenzug zugeordnet werden.rnDie neue Methode wird in zwei verschiedenen Szenarien angewendet: erstens zur Beurteilung der Vorhersagequalität eines einzelnen Rossbywellenzugs und zweitens für die klimatologische Betrachtung von Rossbywellenzügen im ERA-40 Reanalysedatensatz. Sie wurde weiterhin mit bisher verwendeten Methoden zur Identifikation und Quantifizierung von Rossbywellenzügen verglichen.rnDie Untersuchung der Vorhersagequalität ergab, dass in dem betrachteten Fall die Übereinstimmung der Vorhersage mit der Analyse des Wellenzugs gering war, sofern das Modell initialisiert wurde, bevor der Rossbywellenzug eingesetzt hatte. Im Gegensatz dazu nahm die Vorhersagequalität deutlich zu, wenn der Wellenzug bereits in den Vorhersagedaten enthalten war. Dies deutet darauf hin, dass es in dem vorliegenden Fall problematisch ist, mit dem Modell den Auslösemechanismus korrekt voherzusagen. Für die weitere Untersuchung der Vorhersagequalität wurde eine spezielle Art der Darstellung der Daten verwendet, mit deren Hilfe deutlich wurde, dass das verwendete Modell in der Lage ist, diesen Wellenzug ungefähr sechs Tage im Voraus vorherzusagen. Diese Zeitspanne ist deutlich kürzer als die Lebensdauer des Wellenzugs, die etwa 10 Tage beträgt.rnIm Rahmen der klimatologischen Studie ergab sich eine positive Korrelation zwischen der Lebensdauer eines Rossbywellenzugs und des Bereichs den dieser Wellenzug während seiner gesamten Existenz in zonaler Richtung überstreicht. Für Wellenzüge mit einer kurzen Lebensdauer ergab sich eine ebenfalls positive Korrelation zwischen der mittleren Amplitude und der Dauer des Wellenzugs. Für eine längere Lebensdauer geht diese Korrelation aber in eine Sättigung über und die mittlere Amplitude steigt nicht mehr weiter an. Als eine mögliche Erklärung für dieses Verhalten wird angeführt, dass eine gewisse Stärke der Amplitude benötigt wird um stromabwärtige Entwicklung zu erhalten aber zu große Amplituden im Allgemeinen zum Brechen der Welle führen. Das Brechen leitet den letzten Abschnitt im Lebenszyklus eines Rossbywellenzuges ein, welcher im Anschluss meist zerfällt. Ein weiteres Ergebnis der klimatologischen Untersuchung ist das Auffinden bevorzugter Regionen der Entstehung und des Abklingens von Rossbywellenzügen. Diese Regionen unterscheiden sich erheblich für Rossbywellenzüge unterschiedlicher minimaler Lebensdauer. Langlebige Rossbywellenzüge entstehen demnach hauptsächlich über Ostasien und dem Westpazifik und vergehen dann über Europa.rnSchließlich wurde die entwickelte Methode in einen systematischen Vergleich anderer Methoden zur Identifikation und Quantifizierung von Rossbywellenzügen eingereiht. Die betrachteten Methoden beinhalten verschiedene Trog-und-Rücken Hovmöllerdiagramme des Meridionalwindes, Methoden die Rossbywellenzüge als eine Einheit identifizieren und Methoden die den Beitrag verschiedener physikalischer Aspekte zu der Entwicklung von Rossbywellenenzügen quantifizieren. Der Vergleich macht deutlich, dass jede Methode ihre individuellen Stärken und Schwächen hat. Dies bedeutet insbesondere, dass die Eignung der Methode von dem Stadium des Lebenszyklus, in dem sich der Rossbywellenzug befindet und dem Fokus, den man bei der Betrachtung hat, abhängt. Ideal ist eine Kombination mehrerer Methoden, da dies ein vollständigeres Bild eines Rossbywellenzuges ergibt als einzelne Methoden es zu liefern vermögen. Obwohl alle Methoden für die Anwendungen, für die sie jeweils konzipiert wurden, geeignet sind, ergeben sich bei der Diagnose der Rossbywellenzüge beträchtliche Unterschiede. Letztendlich stellt sich heraus, dass sogar die Defintion eines Rossbywellenzugs bis zu einem gewissen Grad von der zu seiner Identifizierung verwendeten Methode abhängt.

La carta dei servizi nel settore dei trasporti e la tutela del passeggero

La tesi si propone l’obiettivo di riconoscere e analizzare l’attuale ruolo delle carte dei servizi di trasporto pubblico nel contesto dell’ordinamento italiano, quale strumento di tutela dei passeggeri. Nella prima parte, viene analizzato il frammentario quadro normativo delle carte dei servizi pubblici, a partire dal d.P.C.M. del 27.01.1994, che rimane tutt’ora il principale riferimento normativo dell’istituto. Nella disamina del quadro normativo, viene posto in evidenza come, salvo per alcune specifiche modalità di trasporto, manchi attualmente una norma che imponga in modo esplicito e diretto l’adozione delle carte dei servizi da parte della generalità dei gestori dei servizi pubblici di trasporto, da cui si sviluppa una riflessione in ordine alla fonte dell’obbligo di adozione di tali carte da parte dei soggetti privati esercenti tale tipologia di servizi. Nella seconda parte, viene analizzato il tema della natura giuridica delle carte dei servizi pubblici di trasporto. Nella terza parte, è analizzato il ruolo attribuito alla neo-costituita Autorità dei Trasporti, di individuazione dei diritti minimi che debbono essere contenuti nelle carte dei servizi di trasporto pubblico. Lo studio analizza inoltre i possibili conflitti di competenze che possono sorgere in relazione ai poteri espressamente attribuiti all’Autorità dei Trasporti. Infine, nella quarta e ultima parte, viene approfondito il tema degli strumenti di tutela apprestati in favore dei passeggeri dalle carte dei servizi, diversi e ulteriori rispetto agli ordinari strumenti già contemplati dall’ordinamento italiano. Con riferimento alla suddetta tematica, vengono esaminati sia gli strumenti di tutela extra-giudiziale, tra cui le procedure di reclamo e gli indennizzi automatici forfettari, sia la tutela giurisdizionale, con un approfondendimento sullo strumento del ricorso per l’efficienza amministrativa introdotto col il D.Lgs. n. 198/2009.

Messungen von salpetriger Säure und Eispartikeln im Nachlauf von Flugzeugen

Ziel dieser Arbeit war der Aufbau und Einsatz des Atmosphärischen chemischen Ionisations-Massenspektrometers AIMS für boden- und flugzeuggetragene Messungen von salpetriger Säure (HONO). Für das Massenspektrometer wurden eine mit Gleichspannung betriebene Gasentladungsionenquelle und ein spezielles Druckregelventil entwickelt. Während der Instrumentenvergleichskampagne FIONA (Formal Intercomparisons of Observations of Nitrous Acid) an einer Atmosphären-Simulationskammer in Valencia (Spanien) wurde AIMS für HONO kalibriert und erstmals eingesetzt. In verschiedenen Experimenten wurden HONO-Mischungsverhältnisse zwischen 100 pmol/mol und 25 nmol/mol erzeugt und mit AIMS interferenzfrei gemessen. Innerhalb der Messunsicherheit von ±20% stimmen die massenspektrometrischen Messungen gut mit den Methoden der Differenziellen Optischen Absorptions-Spektrometrie und der Long Path Absorption Photometrie überein. Die Massenspektrometrie kann somit zum schnellen und sensitiven Nachweis von HONO in verschmutzter Stadtluft und in Abgasfahnen genutzt werden.rnErste flugzeuggetragene Messungen von HONO mit AIMS wurden 2011 bei der Messkampagne CONCERT (Contrail and Cirrus Experiment) auf dem DLR Forschungsflugzeug Falcon durchgeführt. Hierbei konnte eine Nachweisgrenze von < 10 pmol/mol (3σ, 1s) erreicht werden. Bei Verfolgungsflügen wurden im jungen Abgasstrahl von Passagierflugzeugen molare HONO zu Stickoxid-Verhältnisse (HONO/NO) von 2.0 bis 2.5% gemessen. HONO wird im Triebwerk durch die Reaktion von NO mit OH gebildet. Ein gemessener abnehmender Trend der HONO/NO Verhältnisse mit zunehmendem Stickoxid-Emissionsindex wurde bestätigt und weist auf eine OH Limitierung im jungen Abgasstrahl hin.rnNeben den massenspektrometrischen Messungen wurden Flugzeugmessungen der Partikelsonde Forward Scattering Spectrometer Probe FSSP-300 in jungen Kondensstreifen ausgewertet und analysiert. Aus den gemessenen Partikelgrößenverteilungen wurden Extinktions- und optische Tiefe-Verteilungen abgeleitet und für die Untersuchung verschiedener wissenschaftlicher Fragestellungen, z.B. bezüglich der Partikelform in jungen Kondensstreifen und ihrer Klimawirkung, zur Verfügung gestellt. Im Rahmen dieser Arbeit wurde der Einfluss des Flugzeug- und Triebwerktyps auf mikrophysikalische und optische Eigenschaften von Kondensstreifen untersucht. Unter ähnlichen meteorologischen Bedingungen bezüglich Feuchte, Temperatur und stabiler thermischer Schichtung wurden 2 Minuten alte Kondensstreifen der Passagierflugzeuge vom Typ A319-111, A340-311 und A380-841 verglichen. Im Rahmen der Messunsicherheit wurde keine Änderung des Effektivdurchmessers der Partikelgrößenverteilungen gefunden. Hingegen nehmen mit zunehmendem Flugzeuggewicht die Partikelanzahldichte (162 bis 235 cm-3), die Extinktion (2.1 bis 3.2 km-1), die Absinktiefe des Kondensstreifens (120 bis 290 m) und somit die optische Tiefe der Kondensstreifen (0.25 bis 0.94) zu. Der gemessene Trend wurde durch Vergleich mit zwei unabhängigen Kondensstreifen-Modellen bestätigt. Mit den Messungen wurde eine lineare Abhängigkeit der totalen Extinktion (Extinktion mal Querschnittsfläche des Kondensstreifens) vom Treibstoffverbrauch pro Flugstrecke gefunden und bestätigt.

Aeroporti e carbon footprint: influenza della movimentazione degli aeromobili a terra - utilizzo del modello analitico previsionale EDMS

Negli ultimi cinquant’anni, il trasporto aereo ha sperimentato una rapida espansione, parallelamente alla crescita dell’economia globale. Gli aeroporti, oggi, rappresentano strutture complesse, sulle quali si concentrano interessi economici, sociali e strategici di notevole importanza. Il traffico passeggeri, espresso in RPK (Revenue Passenger Kilometers – ricavo per passeggero-chilometro trasportato), dal 1960, è cresciuto di quasi il 9% l’anno, più del doppio del Prodotto Interno Lordo (PIL), e con un tasso di crescita superiore rispetto alle altre modalità di trasporto. Si prevede che il traffico aereo, sia passeggeri che merci, continuerà ad aumentare nel prossimo futuro: le stime di crescita del traffico aereo riportate nell’ultimo rapporto di valutazione ambientale prodotto dall’ICAO (ICAO Environmental Report 2013) prevedono, per il periodo 2010-2030, un aumento del tasso di crescita annuo dei passeggeri, espresso in RPK, pari al +4,9%. Il valore stimato di RPK per il 2030 è pari a 13 bilioni, quasi tre volte maggiore di quello registrato nel 2010. Come conseguenza, anche le emissioni nocive per l’ambiente e per il clima direttamente legate al trasporto aereo sono aumentate, perché l’aumento della domanda di trasporto aereo ha superato la riduzione delle emissioni dovute ai continui miglioramenti apportati dalla tecnologia e dall’ottimizzazione delle procedure operative.

Improving gene silencing of siRNAs via tricyclo-DNA modification

;Small interfering RNAs (siRNAs) can be exploited for the selective silencing of disease-related genes via the RNA interference (RNAi) machinery and therefore raise hope for future therapeutic applications. Especially chemically modified siRNAs are of interest as they are expected to convert lead siRNA sequences into effective drugs. To study the potential of tricyclo-DNA (tc-DNA) in this context we systematically incorporated tc-DNA units at various positions in a siRNA duplex targeted to the EGFP gene that was expressed in HeLa cells. Silencing activity was measured by FACS, mRNA levels were determined by RT-PCR and the biostability of the modifed siRNAs was determined in human serum. We found that modifications in the 3'-overhangs in both the sense and antisense strands were compatible with the RNAi machinery leading to similar activities compared to wild type (wt) siRNA. Additional modifications at the 3'-end, the 5'- end and in the center of the sense (passenger) strand were also well tolerated and did not compromise activity. Extensive modifications of the 3'- and the 5'-end in the antisense (guide) strand, however, abolished RNAi activity. Interestingly, modifications in the center of the duplex on both strands, corresponding to the position of the cleavage site by AGO2, increased efficacy relative to wt by a factor of 4 at the lowest concentrations (2 nM) investigated. In all cases, reduction of EGFP fluorescence was accompanied with a reduction of the EGFP mRNA level. Serum stability analysis further showed that 3'-overhang modifications only moderately increased stability while more extensive substitution by tc-DNA residues significantly enhanced biostability.

Real-World Performance of Longitudinal Barriers Struck by Large Trucks

Outside of relatively limited crash testing with large trucks, very little is known regarding the performance of traffic barriers subjected to real-world large truck impacts. The purpose of this study was to investigate real-world large truck impacts into traffic barriers to determine barrier crash involvement rates, the impact performance of barriers not specifically designed to redirect large trucks, and the real-world performance of large-truck-specific barriers. Data sources included the Fatality Analysis Reporting System (2000-2009), the General Estimates System (2000-2009) and 155 in-depth large truck-to-barrier crashes from the Large Truck Crash Causation Study. Large truck impacts with a longitudinal barrier were found to comprise 3 percent of all police-reported longitudinal barrier impacts and roughly the same proportion of barrier fatalities. Based on a logistic regression model predicting barrier penetration, large truck barrier penetration risk was found to increase by a factor of 6 for impacts with barriers designed primarily for passenger vehicles. Although large-truck-specific barriers were found to perform better than non-heavy vehicle specific barriers, the penetration rate of these barriers were found to be 17 percent. This penetration rate is especially a concern because the higher test level barriers are designed to protect other road users, not the occupants of the large truck. Surprisingly, barriers not specifically designed for large truck impacts were found to prevent large truck penetration approximately half of the time. This suggests that adding costlier higher test level barriers may not always be warranted, especially on roadways with lower truck volumes.

Interactions between short-term and long-term plasticity: shooting for a moving target

Far from being static transmission units, synapses are highly dynamical elements that change over multiple time scales depending on the history of the neural activity of both the pre- and postsynaptic neuron. Moreover, synaptic changes on different time scales interact: long-term plasticity (LTP) can modify the properties of short-term plasticity (STP) in the same synapse. Most existing theories of synaptic plasticity focus on only one of these time scales (either STP or LTP or late-LTP) and the theoretical principles underlying their interactions are thus largely unknown. Here we develop a normative model of synaptic plasticity that combines both STP and LTP and predicts specific patterns for their interactions. Recently, it has been proposed that STP arranges for the local postsynaptic membrane potential at a synapse to behave as an optimal estimator of the presynaptic membrane potential based on the incoming spikes. Here we generalize this approach by considering an optimal estimator of a non-linear function of the membrane potential and the long-term synaptic efficacy—which itself may be subject to change on a slower time scale. We find that an increase in the long-term synaptic efficacy necessitates changes in the dynamics of STP. More precisely, for a realistic non-linear function to be estimated, our model predicts that after the induction of LTP, causing long-term synaptic efficacy to increase, a depressing synapse should become even more depressing. That is, in a protocol using trains of presynaptic stimuli, as the initial EPSP becomes stronger due to LTP, subsequent EPSPs should become weakened and this weakening should be more pronounced with LTP. This form of redistribution of synaptic efficacies agrees well with electrophysiological data on synapses connecting layer 5 pyramidal neurons.

Theta burst stimulation reduces disability during the activities of daily living in spatial neglect

Left-sided spatial neglect is a common neurological syndrome following right-hemispheric stroke. The presence of spatial neglect is a powerful predictor of poor rehabilitation outcome. In one influential account of spatial neglect, interhemispheric inhibition is impaired and leads to a pathological hyperactivity in the contralesional hemisphere, resulting in a biased attentional allocation towards the right hemifield. Inhibitory transcranial magnetic stimulation can reduce the hyperactivity of the contralesional, intact hemisphere and thereby improve spatial neglect symptoms. However, it is not known whether this improvement is also relevant to the activities of daily living during spontaneous behaviour. The primary aim of the present study was to investigate whether the repeated application of continuous theta burst stimulation trains could ameliorate spatial neglect on a quantitative measure of the activities of daily living during spontaneous behaviour. We applied the Catherine Bergego Scale, a standardized observation questionnaire that can validly and reliably detect the presence and severity of spatial neglect during the activities of daily living. Eight trains of continuous theta burst stimulation were applied over two consecutive days on the contralesional, left posterior parietal cortex in patients suffering from subacute left spatial neglect, in a randomized, double-blind, sham-controlled design, which also included a control group of neglect patients without stimulation. The results showed a 37% improvement in the spontaneous everyday behaviour of the neglect patients after the repeated application of continuous theta burst stimulation. Remarkably, the improvement persisted for at least 3 weeks after stimulation. The amelioration of spatial neglect symptoms in the activities of daily living was also generally accompanied by significantly better performance in the neuropsychological tests. No significant amelioration in symptoms was observed after sham stimulation or in the control group without stimulation. These results provide Class I evidence that continuous theta burst stimulation is a viable add-on therapy in neglect rehabilitation that facilitates recovery of normal everyday behaviour.

Mechanisms of nanoparticle-mediated photomechanical cell damage

Laser-assisted killing of gold nanoparticle targeted macrophages was investigated. Using pressure transient detection, flash photography and transmission electron microscopy (TEM) imaging, we studied the mechanism of single cell damage by vapor bubble formation around gold nanospheres induced by nanosecond laser pulses. The influence of the number of irradiating laser pulses and of particle size and concentration on the threshold for acute cell damage was determined. While the single pulse damage threshold is independent of the particle size, the threshold decreases with increasing particle size when using trains of pulses. The dependence of the cell damage threshold on the nanoparticle concentration during incubation reveals that particle accumulation and distribution inside the cell plays a key role in tissue imaging or cell damaging.

Panel 2: Rescue and Escape from the Holocaust

Panel 2: Rescue and Escape from the Holocaust Nina Paulovicova, University of Alberta, Canada: “The Silenced Phenomenon of Cross-National Rescue: 'Leaking Border' and Paid Smugglers” Download Paper (login required) Tomasz Frydel, University of Toronto: "Rescue or Denunciation of Jews? A Case Study of Southeastern Poland during German Occupation" Download Paper (login required) Tanja von Fransecky, Technical University, Berlin, Germany: "Escape and Attempted Escape of Jewish Deportees from Deportation Trains in France, Belgium and the Netherlands” Download Paper (login required) Chair: Adara Goldberg and Elizabeth Anthony, Clark UniversityComment: Deborah Dwork, Clark University

Repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation of the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex affects divided attention immediately after cessation of stimulation

Transcranial magnetic stimulation has evolved into a powerful neuroscientific tool allowing to interfere transiently with specific brain functions. In addition, repetitive TMS (rTMS) has long-term effects (e.g. on mood), probably mediated by neurochemical alterations. While long-term safety of rTMS with regard to cognitive functioning is well established from trials exploring its therapeutic efficacy, little is known on whether rTMS can induce changes in cognitive functioning in a time window ranging from minutes to hours, a time in which neurochemical effects correlated with stimulation have been demonstrated. This study examined effects of rTMS on three measures of executive function in healthy subjects who received one single rTMS session (40 trains of 2 s duration 20 Hz stimuli) at the left dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC). Compared to a sham condition one week apart, divided attention performance was significantly impaired about 30-60 min after rTMS, while Stroop-interference and performance in the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test was unaffected after rTMS. Repetitive TMS of the left DLPFC, at stimulation parameters used in therapeutic studies, does not lead to a clinically relevant impairment of executive function after stimulation. However, the significant effect on divided attention suggests that cognitive effects of rTMS are not limited to the of acute stimulation, and may possibly reflect known neurochemical alterations induced by rTMS. Sensitive cognitive measures may be useful to trace those short-term effects of rTMS non-invasively in humans.

Dendritic spikes in apical dendrites of neocortical layer 2/3 pyramidal neurons

Layer 2/3 (L2/3) pyramidal neurons are the most abundant cells of the neocortex. Despite their key position in the cortical microcircuit, synaptic integration in dendrites of L2/3 neurons is far less understood than in L5 pyramidal cell dendrites, mainly because of the difficulties in obtaining electrical recordings from thin dendrites. Here we directly measured passive and active properties of the apical dendrites of L2/3 neurons in rat brain slices using dual dendritic-somatic patch-clamp recordings and calcium imaging. Unlike L5 cells, L2/3 dendrites displayed little sag in response to long current pulses, which suggests a low density of I(h) in the dendrites and soma. This was also consistent with a slight increase in input resistance with distance from the soma. Brief current injections into the apical dendrite evoked relatively short (half-width 2-4 ms) dendritic spikes that were isolated from the soma for near-threshold currents at sites beyond the middle of the apical dendrite. Regenerative dendritic potentials and large concomitant calcium transients were also elicited by trains of somatic action potentials (APs) above a critical frequency (130 Hz), which was slightly higher than in L5 neurons. Initiation of dendritic spikes was facilitated by backpropagating somatic APs and could cause an additional AP at the soma. As in L5 neurons, we found that distal dendritic calcium transients are sensitive to a long-lasting block by GABAergic inhibition. We conclude that L2/3 pyramidal neurons can generate dendritic spikes, sharing with L5 pyramidal neurons fundamental properties of dendritic excitability and control by inhibition.

ECG-triggered muscular counterpulsation for treatment of low cardiac output

BACKGROUND: Skeletal muscular counterpulsation (MCP) has been used as a new noninvasive technique for treatment of low cardiac output. The MCP method is based on ECG-triggered skeletal muscle stimulation. The purpose of the present study was to evaluate acute hemodynamic changes induced by MCP in the experimental animal. METHODS: Eight anaesthetized pigs (43+/-4 kg) were studied at rest and after IV â-blockade (10 mg propranolol) before and after MCP. Muscular counterpulsation was performed on both thighs using trains (75 ms duration) of multiple biphasic electrical impulses with a width of 1 ms and a frequency of 200 Hz at low (10 V) and high (30 V) amplitude. ECG-triggering was used to synchronize stimulation to a given time point. LV pressure-volume relations were determined using the conductance catheter. After baseline measurements, MCP was carried out for 10 minutes at low and high stimulation amplitude. The optimal time point for MCP was determined from LV pressure-volume loops using different stimulation time points during systole and diastole. Best results were observed during end-systole and, therefore, this time point was used for stimulation. RESULTS: Under control conditions, MCP was associated with a significant decrease in pulmonary vascular resistance (-18%), a decrease in systemic vascular resistance (-11%) and stroke work index (-4%), whereas cardiac index (+2%) and ejection fraction (+6%) increased slightly. Pressure-volume loops showed a leftward shift with a decrease in end-systolic volume. After â-blockade, cardiac function decreased (HR, MAP, EF, dP/dt max), but it improved with skeletal muscle stimulation (HR +10% and CI +17%, EF +5%). There was a significant decrease in pulmonary (-19%) and systemic vascular resistance (-29%). CONCLUSIONS: In the animal model, ECG-triggered skeletal muscular counterpulsation is associated with a significant improvement in cardiac function at baseline and after IV â-blockade. Thus, MCP represents a new, non-invasive technique which improves cardiac function by diastolic compression of the peripheral arteries and veins, with a decrease in systemic vascular resistance and increase in cardiac output.

Finnish Americans and the Farm Revolt of the 1930s

Farm protest in the United States attracted widespread attention in the 1930s as militant farmers interfered with foreclosure sales, demonstrated at county court houses and state capitals, and blocked highways and stopped trains to prevent crops and livestock from going to market in an effort to raise farm prices. The best known of the protest groups was the Farmers Holiday Association, which was formed in 1932. Prior to the Holiday, however, a left-wing group organized by Communists in 1930 known as the United Farmers League (UFL) gained an initial following in the cutover country of the Upper Peninsula of Michigan, northern Wisconsin, northern Minnesota, and parts of the Dakotas and northeast Montana. Finnish Americans dominated the UFL in the Upper Midwest and in a few locales in the Dakotas. Evidence for this high level of influence comes from the fact that the head of the Communist Party’s Agrarian Department was Henry Puro, a key figure in Finnish American Communist circles and a member of the Party’s Politburo. This paper will focus on Finnish American involvement in the UFL and, to a lesser extent, the broader-based Farmers Holiday movement.

AN ASSESSMENT OF BALLAST SOURCE'S QUALITY AND LOCATIONS WITH RESPECT TO MDOT'S UPGRADE OF THE WOLVERINE RAILROAD LINE FOR HIGH SPEED RAIL USEAGE

The Michigan Department of Transportation is evaluating upgrading their portion of the Wolverine Line between Chicago and Detroit to accommodate high speed rail. This will entail upgrading the track to allow trains to run at speeds in excess of 110 miles per hour (mph). An important component of this upgrade will be to assess the requirement for ballast material for high speed rail. In the event that the existing ballast materials do not meet specifications for higher speed train, additional ballast will be required. The purpose of this study, therefore, is to investigate the current MDOT railroad ballast quality specifications and compare them to both the national and international specifications for use on high speed rail lines. The study found that while MDOT has quality specifications for railroad ballast it does not have any for high speed rail. In addition, the American Railway Engineering and Maintenance-of-Way Association (AREMA), while also having specifications for railroad ballast, does not have specific specifications for high speed rail lines. The AREMA aggregate specifications for ballast include the following tests: (1) LA Abrasion, (2) Percent Moisture Absorption, (3) Flat and Elongated Particles, (4) Sulfate Soundness test. Internationally, some countries do require a highly standard for high speed rail such as the Los Angeles (LA) Abrasion test, which is uses a higher standard performance and the Micro Duval test, which is used to determine the maximum speed that a high speed can operate at. Since there are no existing MDOT ballast specification for high speed rail, it is assumed that aggregate ballast specifications for the Wolverine Line will use the higher international specifications. The Wolverine line, however, is located in southern Michigan is a region of sedimentary rocks which generally do not meet the existing MDOT ballast specifications. The investigation found that there were only 12 quarries in the Michigan that meet the MDOT specification. Of these 12 quarries, six were igneous or metamorphic rock quarries, while six were carbonate quarries. Of the six carbonate quarries four were locate in the Lower Peninsula and two in the Upper Peninsula. Two of the carbonate quarries were located in near proximity to the Wolverine Line, while the remaining quarries were at a significant haulage distance. In either case, the cost of haulage becomes an important consideration. In this regard, four of the quarries were located with lake terminals allowing water transportation to down state ports. The Upper Peninsula also has a significant amount of metal based mining in both igneous and metamorphic rock that generate significant amount of waste rock that could be used as a ballast material. The main drawback, however, is the distance to the Wolverine rail line. One potential source is the Cliffs Natural Resources that operates two large surface mines in the Marquette area with rail and water transportation to both Lake Superior and Lake Michigan. Both mines mine rock with a very high compressive strength far in excess of most ballast materials used in the United States and would make an excellent ballast materials. Discussions with Cliffs, however, indicated that due to environmental concerns that they would most likely not be interested in producing a ballast material. In the United States carbonate aggregates, while used for ballast, many times don't meet the ballast specifications in addition to the problem of particle degradation that can lead to fouling and cementation issues. Thus, many carbonate aggregate quarries in close proximity to railroads are not used. Since Michigan has a significant amount of carbonate quarries, the research also investigated using the dynamic properties of aggregate as a possible additional test for aggregate ballast quality. The dynamic strength of a material can be assessed using a split Hopkinson Pressure Bar (SHPB). The SHPB has been traditionally used to assess the dynamic properties of metal but over the past 20 years it is now being used to assess the dynamic properties of brittle materials such as ceramics and rock. In addition, the wear properties of metals have been related to their dynamic properties. Wear or breakdown of railroad ballast materials is one of the main problems with ballast material due to the dynamic loading generated by trains and which will be significantly higher for high speed rails. Previous research has indicated that the Port Inland quarry along Lake Michigan in the Southern Upper Peninsula has significant dynamic properties that might make it potentially useable as an aggregate for high speed rail. The dynamic strength testing conducted in this research indicate that the Port Inland limestone in fact has a dynamic strength close to igneous rocks and much higher than other carbonate rocks in the Great Lakes region. It is recommended that further research be conducted to investigate the Port Inland limestone as a high speed ballast material.