Trade, Foreign Investment and Myanmar's Economic Development during the Transition to an Open Economy

Throughout the 1990s and up to 2005, the adoption of an open-door policy substantially increased the volume of Myanmar's external trade. Imports grew more rapidly than exports in the 1990s owing to the release of pent-up consumer demand during the transition to a market economy. Accordingly, trade deficits expanded. Confronted by a shortage of foreign currency, the government after the late 1990s resorted to rigid controls over the private sector's trade activities. Despite this tightening of policy, Myanmar's external sector has improved since 2000 largely because of the emergence of new export commodities, namely garments and natural gas. Foreign direct investments in Myanmar significantly contributed to the exploration and development of new gas fields. As trade volume grew, Myanmar strengthened its trade relations with neighboring countries such as China, Thailand and India. Although the development of external trade and foreign investment inflows exerted a considerable impact on the Myanmar economy, the external sector has not yet begun to function as a vigorous engine for broad-based and sustainable development.

Use of alternative fuels obtained from renewable sources in brayton cycles

Analysis and simulation of the behaviour of gas turbines for power generation using different nonconventional fuels obtained from different renewable sources are presented. Three biomass-tobiofuel processes are considered: anaerobic digestion of biomass (biogas), biomass gasification (synthesis gas) and alcoholic fermentation of biomass and dehydration (bioethanol), each of them with two different biomass substrates (energy crops and municipal solid waste) as input. The gas turbine behaviour in a Brayton cycle is simulated both in an isolated operation and in combined cycle. The differences in gas turbine performance when fired with the considered biofuels compared to natural gas are studied from different points of view related with the current complex energetic context: energetic and exergetic efficiency of the simple/combined cycle and CO2 emissions. Two different tools have been used for the simulations, each one with a different approach: while PATITUG (own software) analyses the behaviour of a generic gas turbine allowing a total variability of parameters, GT-PRO (commercial software) is more rigid, albeit more precise in the prediction of real gas turbine behaviour. Different potentially interesting configurations and its thermodynamic parameters have been simulated in order to obtain the optimal range for all of them and its variation for each fuel.

Optimizaci��n de la metodolog��a de contrataci��n de carbones t��rmicos con destino a la generaci��n el��ctrica

En los ��ltimos quince a��os se ha producido una liberalizaci��n de los mercados el��ctricos en los distintos pa��ses de ��mbito occidental que ha ido acompa��ado de un incremento por la preocupaci��n por la incidencia de las distintas tecnolog��as de generaci��n en el entorno medioambiental. Ello se ha traducido en la aparici��n de un marco regulatorio m��s restrictivo sobre las tecnolog��as de generaci��n f��siles, con mayor incidencia en las derivadas de productos petrol��feros y carb��n. A nivel mundial han ido apareciendo cambios normativos relativos a las emisiones de distintos elementos contaminantes (CO2, SO2, NOx���), que hacen que en particular las centrales t��rmicas de carb��n vean muy afectadas su rentabilidad y funcionamiento. Esta situaci��n ha supuesto que la tecnolog��a de generaci��n el��ctrica con carb��n haya avanzado considerablemente en los ��ltimos a��os (calderas supercr��ticas, sistemas de desulfuraci��n, gasificaci��n del carb��n���). No obstante, el desarrollo de la generaci��n con energ��as renovables, la generaci��n con gas mediante centrales de ciclo combinado y la opini��n social relativa a la generaci��n con carb��n, principalmente en Europa, suponen un serio obst��culo a la generaci��n con carb��n. Por consiguiente, se hace necesario buscar v��as para optimizar la competitividad de las centrales de carb��n y el camino m��s razonable es mejorar el margen esperado de estas plantas y en particular el coste de adquisici��n del carb��n. Ello se hace a��n m��s importante por el hecho de existir numerosas centrales de carb��n y un elevado n��mero de nuevos proyectos constructivos de centrales de carb��n en pa��ses asi��ticos. Por consiguiente, el objeto de la presente tesis doctoral se centra en definir una metodolog��a para optimizar la compra de carb��n, desde el punto de vista econ��mico y t��cnico, con destino a su consumo en una central t��rmica, con ello reducir el coste del carb��n consumido y mejorar su competitividad. Tambi��n se enfoca a determinar que herramientas pueden ser utilizadas para optimizar la gesti��n del carb��n despu��s de su compra y con ello abrir la posibilidad de obtener m��rgenes adicionales para dicho carb��n. De acuerdo con este objetivo, el autor de la presente Tesis Doctoral realiza tres aportaciones novedosas en el ��mbito de la contrataci��n de carb��n t��rmico y su optimizaci��n posterior: - Evaluaci��n de carbones para su adquisici��n considerando el efecto de la calidad del carb��n en el coste de generaci��n asociado a cada carb��n ofertado. - Creaci��n, desarrollo, implantaci��n y utilizaci��n de una potente herramienta de planificaci��n de Combustibles. Esta herramienta, est�� dise��ada con el objeto de determinar la soluci��n econ��mica ��ptima de aprovisionamientos, consumos y niveles de existencias para un parque de generaci��n con centrales de carb��n y fuel��leo. - La extensi��n de una metodolog��a contractual habitual en el mercado spot de Gas Natural Licuado, a la contrataci��n spot de Carb��n de Importaci��n. Esta se basa en el desarrollo de Acuerdos Marcos de Compra/Venta de carb��n, que por su flexibilidad permitan obtener resultados econ��micos adicionales despu��s de la compra de un carb��n. Abstract In the last fifteen years, a liberalization of the electrical markets has occurred in the western countries. This process has been accompanied by an increasing concern of the impact of the different generation technologies towards the environment. This has motivated a regulated framework restricting the use of fossil fuels, impacting a great deal in coal and oil based products. Worldwide, new legal changes have been arising related to the emissions of the different pollutants (CO2, SO2, NOx���). These changes have had a deep impact in the feasibility, profit and running of coal fired power plants. This situation has motivated the coal electrical generation technologies to move forward in an important way in the last few years (supercritical furnaces, desulphuration plants, coal gasification���). Nevertheless, the development of the renewable generation, the gas combined cycle generation and the social opinion related to the coal electrical generation, mainly in Europe, have created a serious obstacle to the generation of electricity by coal. Therefore it is necessary to look for new paths in order to optimize the competitiveness of the coal fired power plants and the most reasonable way is to improve the expected margin of these plants and particularly the coal purchase cost. All of the above needs to be taken into context with the large number of existing coal fired power plants and an important number of new projects in Asian countries. Therefore, the goal of the current doctoral dissertation is focused to define a methodology to be considered in order to optimize the coal purchase, from an economical and a technical point of view. This coal, destined for power plant consumption, permits the reduction of consumption coal cost and improves the plant���s competitiveness. This document is also focused to define what tools we can use to optimize the coal management after deal closing and therefore open the possibility to get further margins. According to this goal, the author of this doctoral dissertation provides three important new ideas in the ambit of contracting steam coal and the posterior optimization: - Evaluation of coal purchases, considering the effect of coal quality on the cost of generation associated with each type of coal offered. - The creation, development, deployment and use of a strong planning tool of fuels. This tool is designed for the purpose of determining the optimal economic solution of fuel supply, consumption and stock levels for a power generation portfolio using coal and fuel oil fired power plants. - The application of a common contractual methodology in the spot market of Liquid Natural Gas, for the contracting spot imported coal. This is based on the development of Framework Agreements for the Purchasing / Sale of coal, which because of its flexibility allows for the gain of additional financial results after the purchase of coal.

Estudio energ��tico comparativo de diferentes configuraciones de ciclo combinado

El objetivo del presente proyecto consiste en la modelizaci��n y optimizaci��n de una planta de gasificaci��n integrada en ciclo combinado de 400 MW de potencia neta, mediante el uso del programa Cycle-Tempo, desarrollado por la Universidad de Delft. Para la modelizaci��n de la planta, se ha dividido en sus dos unidades principales: la isla de gasificaci��n y el ciclo combinado. Para la validaci��n del modelo de la isla de gasificaci��n, se ha utilizado una composici��n de referencia de un combustible gasificable y se ha obtenido la composici��n del gas de s��ntesis esperada. Se han modelado y optimizado varias configuraciones de ciclo combinado, variando los par��metros caracter��sticos de la caldera de recuperaci��n de calor. Se ha realizado la integraci��n de las dos unidades para maximizar la potencia entregada por la planta. Finalmente, se ha estimado el balance anual de energ��a del ciclo combinado alimentado con gas natural y con el gas de s��ntesis, con el fin de comparar las rentabilidades econ��micas obtenidas. Mediante el estudio realizado, se deduce que la forma m��s eficiente de producir energ��a, a partir del uso del carb��n, es la tecnolog��a de gasificaci��n integrada en ciclo combinado, pese a que su rendimiento sea inferior al ciclo combinado alimentado con gas natural. ABSTRACT The aim of this project is the modeling and optimization of an integrated gasification combined cycle plant of 400 MW net power, using the Cycle-Tempo program, developed by the University of Delft. For the modeling of the plant, it has been divided into its two main units: the island of gasification and the combined cycle. For the model validation of the gasification island, a reference composition of a gasifiable fuel has been used and the expected synthesis gas composition was obtained. Several configurations of combined cycle have been modeled and optimized by varying the characteristic parameters of the heat recovery steam generator. It has made the integration of the two units to reach maximum optimization of power, which has been delivered by the plant. Finally, it has been estimated the annual energy balance for the combined cycle plant fueled with natural gas and with syngas, in order to compare the profitability obtained with each one. Through the study, it is deduced that the most efficient way to produce energy from the use of coal, is the integrated gasification combined cycle technology, although their performance is lower than that obtained from the combined cycle fueled with natural gas.

Use of alternative fuels obtained from renowable sources in Brayton cycles

Analysis and simulation of the behaviour of gas turbines for power generation using different nonconventional fuels obtained from different renewable sources are presented. Three biomass-tobiofuel processes are considered: anaerobic digestion of biomass (biogas), biomass gasification (synthesis gas) and alcoholic fermentation of biomass and dehydration (bioethanol), each of them with two different biomass substrates (energy crops and municipal solid waste) as input. The gas turbine behaviour in a Brayton cycle is simulated both in an isolated operation and in combined cycle. The differences in gas turbine performance when fired with the considered biofuels compared to natural gas are studied from different points of view related with the current complex energetic context: energetic and exergetic efficiency of the simple/combined cycle and CO2 emissions. Two different tools have been used for the simulations, each one with a different approach: while PATITUG (own software) analyses the behaviour of a generic gas turbine allowing a total variability of parameters, GT-PRO (commercial software) is more rigid, albeit more precise in the prediction of real gas turbine behaviour. Different potentially interesting configurations and its thermodynamic parameters have been simulated in order to obtain the optimal range for all of them and its variation for each fuel.

Co2 capture in power plants-using the oxy-combustion principle

In the C02 capture from power generation, the energy penalties for the capture are one of the main challenges. Nowadays, the post-combustion methods have energy penalties 10wer than the oxy combustion and pre-combustion technologies. One of the main disadvantages of the post combustion method is the fact that the capture ofC02at atmospheric pressure requires quite big equipment for the high flow rates of flue gas, and the 10w partial pressure of the CO2generates an important 10ss of energy. The A1lam cyc1e presented for NETPOWER gives high efficiencies in the power production and 10w energy penalties. A simulation of this cyc1e is made together with a simulation of power plants with pre-combustion and post-combustion capture and without capture for natural gas and forcoa1. The simulations give 10wer efficiencies than the proposed for NETPOWER For natural gas the efficiency is 52% instead of the 59% presented, and 33% instead of51% in the case of using coal as fuel. Are brought to light problems in the CO2compressor due the high flow ofC02that is compressed unti1300 bar to be recyc1ed into the combustor.

Analysis of the Iberian Power Forward Price Formation

The price formation of the Iberian Energy Derivatives Market-the power futures market-starting in July 2006, is assessed until November 2011, through the evolution of the difference between forward and spot prices in the delivery period (���ex-post forward risk premium���) and the comparison with the forward generation costs from natural gas (���clean spark spread���). The premium tends to be positive in all existing mechanisms (futures, Over-the-Counter and auctions for catering part of the last resort supplies). Since year 2011, the values are smaller due to regulatorily recognized prices for coal power plants. The power futures are strongly correlated with European gas prices. The spreads built with prompt contracts tend also to be positive. The biggest ones are for the month contract, followed by the quarter contract and then by the year contract. Therefore, gas fired generation companies can maximize profits trading with contracts of shorter maturity.

Producci��n de biog��s a partir de biomasa de la microalga scenedesmus sp. procedente de diferentes procesos

En este trabajo de Tesis Doctoral se ha estudiado la posibilidad de emplear las microalgas, concretamente el g��nero Scenedesmus, como sustrato para la producci��n de biog��s mediante digesti��n anaerobia, as�� como los residuos que se producen como consecuencia de su utilizaci��n industrial para diferentes fines. La utilizaci��n de las microalgas para la producci��n de biocombustibles es un tema de gran actualidad cient��fica, en el que residen muchas expectativas para la producci��n a gran escala de biocombustibles que supongan una alternativa real a los combustibles f��siles. Existen numerosas investigaciones sobre la conversi��n a biog��s de las microalgas, sin embargo a��n hay poco conocimiento sobre la utilizaci��n de la digesti��n anaerobia como tratamiento de residuos de microalgas en un concepto de biorrefiner��a. Residuos que pueden ser generados tras la extracci��n de compuestos de alto valor a��adido (p. ej. amino��cidos) o tras la generaci��n de otro biocombustible (p. ej. biodi��sel). Es en este aspecto en el que esta Tesis Doctoral destaca en cuanto a originalidad e innovaci��n, ya que se ha centrado principalmente en tres posibilidades: - Empleo de Scenedesmus sp. como cultivo energ��tico para la producci��n de biog��s. - Tratamiento de residuos de Scenedesmus sp. generados tras la extracci��n de amino��cidos en un concepto de biorrefiner��a. - Tratamiento de los residuos de Scenedesmus sp. generados tras la extracci��n de l��pidos en un concepto de biorrefiner��a. Los resultados obtenidos demuestran que la microalga Scenedesmus como cultivo energ��tico para producci��n de biog��s no es viable salvo que se empleen pretratamientos que aumenten la biodegradabilidad o se realice codigesti��n con otro sustrato. En este ��ltimo caso, la chumbera (Opuntia maxima Mill.) ha resultado ser un sustrato id��neo para la codigesti��n con microalgas, aumentando la producci��n de biog��s y metano hasta niveles superiores a 600 y 300 L kgSV-1, respectivamente. Por otro lado, el tratamiento de residuos generados tras la extracci��n de amino��cidos mediante digesti��n anaerobia es prometedor. Se obtuvieron elevados rendimientos de biog��s y metano en las condiciones de operaci��n ��ptimas (409 y 292 L kgSV-1, respectivamente). Aparte de la generaci��n energ��tica por medio el metano, que podr��a emplearse en la propia biorrefiner��a o venderse a la red el��ctrica o de gas natural, reciclando el digerido y el CO2 del biog��s se podr��a llegar a ahorrar alrededor del 30% del fertilizante mineral y el 25% del CO2 necesarios para el cultivo de nueva biomasa. Por lo tanto, la digesti��n anaerobia de los residuos de microalgas en un concepto de biorrefiner��a tiene un gran potencial y podr��a contribuir en gran medida al desarrollo de esta industria. Por ��ltimo, una primera aproximaci��n al tratamiento de residuos generados tras la extracci��n de l��pidos muestra que ��stos pueden ser empleados para la producci��n de biog��s, como monosustrato, o en codigesti��n con glicerina, ya que son f��cilmente biodegradables y el rendimiento potencial de metano puede alcanzar 218 LCH4 kgSV-1 y 262 LCH4 kg SV-1 en monodigesti��n o en codigesti��n con glicerina, respectivamente. ABSTRACT This PhD thesis explores the possibility of using microalgae, specifically the strain Scenedesmus, as substrate for biogas production through anaerobic digestion, as well as the residues generated after its use in different industrial processes. The use of microalgae for biofuels production is an emerging scientific issue. The possibility of producing biofuels from microalgae as a real alternative for fossil fuels is raising high expectations. There are several research projects on the conversion of microalgae to biogas; however, there is little knowledge about using anaerobic digestion for treating microalgae residues in a biorefinery scheme. These residues could be generated after the extraction of high value compounds (e.g. amino acids) or after the production of another biofuel (e.g. biodiesel). It is in this area in which this PhD thesis stands in terms of originality and innovation, since it has focused primarily on three possibilities: - The use of Scenedesmus sp. as an energy crop for biogas production. - Treatment of amino acid extracted Scenedesmus residues generated in a biorefinery. - Treatment of lipid extracted Scenedesmus residues generated in a biorefinery. The results obtained in this work show that the use of Scenedesmus as energy crop for biogas production is not viable. The application of pretreatments to increase biodegradability or the codigestion of Scenedesmus biomass with other substrate can improve the digestion process. In this latter case, prickly pear (Opuntia maxima Mill.) is an ideal substrate for its codigestion with microalgae, increasing biogas and methane yields up to more than 600 and 300 L kgVS-1, respectively. On the other hand, the treatment of residues generated after amino acid extraction through anaerobic digestion is promising. High biogas and methane yields were obtained (409 y 292 L kgVS-1, respectively). Besides the energy produced through methane, which could be used in the biorefinery or be sold to the power or natural gas grids, by recycling the digestate and the CO2 30% of fertilizer needs and 25% of CO2 needs could be saved to grow new microalgae biomass. Therefore, the anaerobic digestion of microalgae residues generated in biorefineries is promising and it could play an important role in the development of this industry. Finally, a first approach to the treatment of residues generated after lipid extraction showed that these residues could be used for the production of biogas, since they are highly biodegradable. The potential methane yield could reach 218 LCH4 kgVS-1 when they are monodigested, whereas the potential methane yield reached 262 LCH4 kgVS-1 when residues were codigested with residual glycerin.

Clasificaci��n de zonas en instalaciones para veh��culos propulsados por GNC

El presente proyecto tiene como objetivo principal el an��lisis de la viabilidad de estacionamiento de veh��culos propulsados por gas natural comprimido (GNC) desde el punto de vista de formaci��n de atmosferas potencialmente explosivas en los garajes subterr��neos. Adem��s se ha realizado una breve introducci��n sobre el GNC explicando el origen, la composici��n y los diferentes usos que tiene. Se ha realizado la evaluaci��n de riesgos asociados a la utilizaci��n de veh��culos propulsados por gas natural y estimaci��n de tasas de escape en el circuito de combustible de los veh��culos propulsados por GNC. Para ello se ha aplicado la normativa UNE EN 60079-10 traspuesta en Espa��a mediante el Real Decreto del 681/2003 sobre la salud y la seguridad de los trabajadores y el Real Decreto 400/1996 sobre aparatos y sistemas de protecci��n para su uso en atm��sferas explosivas. Finalmente se han expuesto las medidas de prevenci��n y protecci��n necesarias para prevenir la generaci��n de atmosferas potencialmente explosivas en los garajes subterr��neos y se han detallado los procedimientos y las operaciones que han de realizarse. En las conclusiones se han explicado las acciones m��s importantes que deben emprenderse para mejorar la seguridad de personas e instalaciones en las ��reas de riesgo por presencia de atm��sferas potencialmente explosivas. ABSTRACT The main objective of this project is to analyze the viability of the parking of vehicles powered by compressed natural gas (CNG) in the underground garages from the point of view of generated of potentially explosive atmospheres in garages. A brief introduction about the CNG explaining the origin, composition and the different uses that it has is also included. An assessment of the risks associated with the use of vehicles powered by natural gas has been provided as well as an estimate of the exhaust rates on the gas circuit of CNG vehicles. In order to do that, the standard UNE EN 60079-10 transposed in Spain by the Royal Decree 681/2003 about the health and safety of workers and the Royal Decree 400/1996 about equipment and protection systems to be used in explosive atmospheres have been applied. Finally, the necessary preventive and protective measures to prevent the generation of potentially explosive atmospheres in underground garages have been presented and the procedures and operations to be performed have been detailed. In the conclusions, the most important actions to be taken in order to improve the safety of people and facilities in the areas at risk of having potentially explosive atmospheres have been described.

Tren de licuefacci��n con licencia linde de la planta de Melkoya (Noruega)

El objeto principal del proyecto es describir las instalaciones de la planta de licuefacci��n de Melkoya (Noruega) y simular con el programa Aspen Plus el tren de licuefacci��n, que aplica una nueva licencia altamente eficiente para este tipo de plantas. En esta simulaci��n, a partir de la informaci��n bibliogr��fica disponible, se ha realizado un an��lisis preliminar para determinar el diagrama de flujo y las caracter��sticas esenciales del proceso, incluyendo una estimaci��n de la cantidad y composici��n del refrigerante necesario en cada etapa, informaci��n altamente confidencial por parte de los licenciantes de estas tecnolog��as. La finalidad del proceso y de la simulaci��n es que el gas natural que entra gaseoso a 10 ��C, salga l��quido a ��� 163 ��C para entrar en los tanques de almacenamiento de la instalaci��n a la espera de ser transportado por buques metaneros. Tras una correcta simulaci��n se realiza un estudio sobre los caudales, temperaturas de los intercambiadores de calor, autoconsumo de los compresores y la curva de enfriamiento del tren de licuefacci��n. La ��ltima parte del proyecto incluye un estudio econ��mico, el cual incluye un an��lisis de sensibilidad. ABSTRACT The main object of the project is to describe the facilities of the plant of Melkoya's liquefaction (Norway) and to simulate the train of liquefaction with the program Aspen Plus, with the bibliographical available information. This program applies a new highly efficient license for this type of plants. A preliminary analysis has been realized to determine the flow diagram and the essential characteristics of the process. The simulation includes an estimation of the quantity and composition of the cooling needed in every stage. This information is highly confidential on the license of these technologies. In the simulation, the natural gas enters into the cycle as a gas at 10 ��C. Inside it, this gas condenses as a liquid at -163 ��C. After that, it enters into the storage���s tanks waiting its maritime transportation by LNG carriers. Later it realized a study about the correct operations conditions, like flows, temperatures of the heat interchangers, self-consumptions of the compressors and the cooling curve of the liquefaction train. The last part of the project is an economic study which includes a sensitivity analysis.

Propuestas regulatorias para el dise��o de un mercado ib��rico a plazo eficiente de la energ��a = Regulatory proposals for the development of an efficient iberian energy forward market

El mercado ib��rico de futuros de energ��a el��ctrica gestionado por OMIP (���Operador do Mercado Ib��rico de Energia, P��lo Portugu��s���, con sede en Lisboa), tambi��n conocido como el mercado ib��rico de derivados de energ��a, comenz�� a funcionar el 3 de julio de 2006. Se analiza la eficiencia de este mercado organizado, por lo que se estudia la precisi��n con la que sus precios de futuros predicen el precio de contado. En dicho mercado coexisten dos modos de negociaci��n: el mercado continuo (modo por defecto) y la contrataci��n mediante subasta. En la negociaci��n en continuo, las ��rdenes an��nimas de compra y de venta interact��an de manera inmediata e individual con ��rdenes contrarias, dando lugar a operaciones con un n��mero indeterminado de precios para cada contrato. En la negociaci��n a trav��s de subasta, un precio ��nico de equilibrio maximiza el volumen negociado, liquid��ndose todas las operaciones a ese precio. Adicionalmente, los miembros negociadores de OMIP pueden liquidar operaciones ���Over-The-Counter��� (OTC) a trav��s de la c��mara de compensaci��n de OMIP (OMIClear). Las cinco mayores empresas espa��olas de distribuci��n de energ��a el��ctrica ten��an la obligaci��n de comprar electricidad hasta julio de 2009 en subastas en OMIP, para cubrir parte de sus suministros regulados. De igual manera, el suministrador de ��ltimo recurso portugu��s mantuvo tal obligaci��n hasta julio de 2010. Los precios de equilibrio de esas subastas no han resultado ��ptimos a efectos retributivos de tales suministros regulados dado que dichos precios tienden a situarse ligeramente sesgados al alza. La prima de riesgo ex-post, definida como la diferencia entre los precios a plazo y de contado en el periodo de entrega, se emplea para medir su eficiencia de precio. El mercado de contado, gestionado por OMIE (���Operador de Mercado Ib��rico de la Energ��a���, conocido tradicionalmente como ���OMEL���), tiene su sede en Madrid. Durante los dos primeros a��os del mercado de futuros, la prima de riesgo media tiende a resultar positiva, al igual que en otros mercados europeos de energ��a el��ctrica y gas natural. En ese periodo, la prima de riesgo ex-post tiende a ser negativa en los mercados de petr��leo y carb��n. Los mercados de energ��a tienden a mostrar niveles limitados de eficiencia de mercado. La eficiencia de precio del mercado de futuros aumenta con el desarrollo de otros mecanismos coexistentes dentro del mercado ib��rico de electricidad (conocido como ���MIBEL���) ���es decir, el mercado dominante OTC, las subastas de centrales virtuales de generaci��n conocidas en Espa��a como Emisiones Primarias de Energ��a, y las subastas para cubrir parte de los suministros de ��ltimo recurso conocidas en Espa��a como subastas CESUR��� y con una mayor integraci��n de los mercados regionales europeos de energ��a el��ctrica. Se construye un modelo de regresi��n para analizar la evoluci��n de los vol��menes negociados en el mercado continuo durante sus cuatro primeros a��os como una funci��n de doce indicadores potenciales de liquidez. Los ��nicos indicadores significativos son los vol��menes negociados en las subastas obligatorias gestionadas por OMIP, los vol��menes negociados en el mercado OTC y los vol��menes OTC compensados por OMIClear. El n��mero de creadores de mercado, la incorporaci��n de agentes financieros y compa����as de generaci��n pertenecientes a grupos integrados con suministradores de ��ltimo recurso, y los vol��menes OTC compensados por OMIClear muestran una fuerte correlaci��n con los vol��menes negociados en el mercado continuo. La liquidez de OMIP est�� a��n lejos de los niveles alcanzados por los mercados europeos m��s maduros (localizados en los pa��ses n��rdicos (Nasdaq OMX Commodities) y Alemania (EEX)). El operador de mercado y su c��mara de compensaci��n podr��an desarrollar acciones eficientes de marketing para atraer nuevos agentes activos en el mercado de contado (p.ej. industrias consumidoras intensivas de energ��a, suministradores, peque��os productores, compa����as energ��ticas internacionales y empresas de energ��as renovables) y agentes financieros, captar vol��menes del opaco OTC, y mejorar el funcionamiento de los productos existentes a��n no l��quidos. Resultar��a de gran utilidad para tales acciones un di��logo activo con todos los agentes (participantes en el mercado, operador de mercado de contado, y autoridades supervisoras). Durante sus primeros cinco a��os y medio, el mercado continuo presenta un crecimento de liquidez estable. Se mide el desempe��o de sus funciones de cobertura mediante la ratio de posici��n neta obtenida al dividir la posici��n abierta final de un contrato de derivados mensual entre su volumen acumulado en la c��mara de compensaci��n. Los futuros carga base muestran la ratio m��s baja debido a su buena liquidez. Los futuros carga punta muestran una mayor ratio al producirse su menor liquidez a trav��s de contadas subastas fijadas por regulaci��n portuguesa. Las permutas carga base liquidadas en la c��mara de compensaci��n ubicada en Madrid ���MEFF Power, activa desde el 21 de marzo de 2011��� muestran inicialmente valores altos debido a bajos vol��menes registrados, dado que esta c��mara se emplea principalmente para vencimientos peque��os (diario y semanal). Dicha ratio puede ser una poderosa herramienta de supervisi��n para los reguladores energ��ticos cuando accedan a todas las transacciones de derivados en virtud del Reglamento Europeo sobre Integridad y Transparencia de los Mercados de Energ��a (���REMIT���), en vigor desde el 28 de diciembre de 2011. La prima de riesgo ex-post tiende a ser positiva en todos los mecanismos (futuros en OMIP, mercado OTC y subastas CESUR) y disminuye debido a la curvas de aprendizaje y al efecto, desde el a��o 2011, del precio fijo para la retribuci��n de la generaci��n con carb��n aut��ctono. Se realiza una comparativa con los costes a plazo de generaci��n con gas natural (diferencial ���clean spark spread���) obtenido como la diferencia entre el precio del futuro el��ctrico y el coste a plazo de generaci��n con ciclo combinado internalizando los costes de emisi��n de CO2. Los futuros el��ctricos tienen una elevada correlaci��n con los precios de gas europeos. Los diferenciales de contratos con vencimiento inmediato tienden a ser positivos. Los mayores diferenciales se dan para los contratos mensuales, seguidos de los trimestrales y anuales. Los generadores el��ctricos con gas pueden maximizar beneficios con contratos de menor vencimiento. Los informes de monitorizaci��n por el operador de mercado que proporcionan transparencia post-operacional, el acceso a datos OTC por el regulador energ��tico, y la valoraci��n del riesgo regulatorio pueden contribuir a ganancias de eficiencia. Estas recomendaciones son tambi��n v��lidas para un potencial mercado ib��rico de futuros de gas, una vez que el hub ib��rico de gas ���actualmente en fase de dise��o, con reuniones mensuales de los agentes desde enero de 2013 en el grupo de trabajo liderado por el regulador energ��tico espa��ol��� est�� operativo. El hub ib��rico de gas proporcionar�� transparencia al atraer m��s agentes y mejorar la competencia, incrementando su eficiencia, dado que en el mercado OTC actual no se revela precio alguno de gas. ABSTRACT The Iberian Power Futures Market, managed by OMIP (���Operador do Mercado Ib��rico de Energia, P��lo Portugu��s���, located in Lisbon), also known as the Iberian Energy Derivatives Market, started operations on 3 July 2006. The market efficiency, regarding how well the future price predicts the spot price, is analysed for this energy derivatives exchange. There are two trading modes coexisting within OMIP: the continuous market (default mode) and the call auction. In the continuous trading, anonymous buy and sell orders interact immediately and individually with opposite side orders, generating trades with an undetermined number of prices for each contract. In the call auction trading, a single price auction maximizes the traded volume, being all trades settled at the same price (equilibrium price). Additionally, OMIP trading members may settle Over-the-Counter (OTC) trades through OMIP clearing house (OMIClear). The five largest Spanish distribution companies have been obliged to purchase in auctions managed by OMIP until July 2009, in order to partly cover their portfolios of end users��� regulated supplies. Likewise, the Portuguese last resort supplier kept that obligation until July 2010. The auction equilibrium prices are not optimal for remuneration purposes of regulated supplies as such prices seem to be slightly upward biased. The ex-post forward risk premium, defined as the difference between the forward and spot prices in the delivery period, is used to measure its price efficiency. The spot market, managed by OMIE (Market Operator of the Iberian Energy Market, Spanish Pool, known traditionally as ���OMEL���), is located in Madrid. During the first two years of the futures market, the average forward risk premium tends to be positive, as it occurs with other European power and natural gas markets. In that period, the ex-post forward risk premium tends to be negative in oil and coal markets. Energy markets tend to show limited levels of market efficiency. The price efficiency of the Iberian Power Futures Market improves with the market development of all the coexistent forward contracting mechanisms within the Iberian Electricity Market (known as ���MIBEL���) ��� namely, the dominant OTC market, the Virtual Power Plant Auctions known in Spain as Energy Primary Emissions, and the auctions catering for part of the last resort supplies known in Spain as CESUR auctions ��� and with further integration of European Regional Electricity Markets. A regression model tracking the evolution of the traded volumes in the continuous market during its first four years is built as a function of twelve potential liquidity drivers. The only significant drivers are the traded volumes in OMIP compulsory auctions, the traded volumes in the OTC market, and the OTC cleared volumes by OMIClear. The amount of market makers, the enrolment of financial members and generation companies belonging to the integrated group of last resort suppliers, and the OTC cleared volume by OMIClear show strong correlation with the traded volumes in the continuous market. OMIP liquidity is still far from the levels reached by the most mature European markets (located in the Nordic countries (Nasdaq OMX Commodities) and Germany (EEX)). The market operator and its clearing house could develop efficient marketing actions to attract new entrants active in the spot market (e.g. energy intensive industries, suppliers, small producers, international energy companies and renewable generation companies) and financial agents as well as volumes from the opaque OTC market, and to improve the performance of existing illiquid products. An active dialogue with all the stakeholders (market participants, spot market operator, and supervisory authorities) will help to implement such actions. During its firs five and a half years, the continuous market shows steady liquidity growth. The hedging performance is measured through a net position ratio obtained from the final open interest of a month derivatives contract divided by its accumulated cleared volume. The base load futures in the Iberian energy derivatives exchange show the lowest ratios due to good liquidity. The peak futures show bigger ratios as their reduced liquidity is produced by auctions fixed by Portuguese regulation. The base load swaps settled in the clearing house located in Spain ��� MEFF Power, operating since 21 March 2011, with a new denomination (BME Clearing) since 9 September 2013 ��� show initially large values due to low registered volumes, as this clearing house is mainly used for short maturity (daily and weekly swaps). The net position ratio can be a powerful oversight tool for energy regulators when accessing to all the derivatives transactions as envisaged by European regulation on Energy Market Integrity and Transparency (���REMIT���), in force since 28 December 2011. The ex-post forward risk premium tends to be positive in all existing mechanisms (OMIP futures, OTC market and CESUR auctions) and diminishes due to the learning curve and the effect ��� since year 2011 ��� of the fixed price retributing the indigenous coal fired generation. Comparison with the forward generation costs from natural gas (���clean spark spread���) ��� obtained as the difference between the power futures price and the forward generation cost with a gas fired combined cycle plant taking into account the CO2 emission rates ��� is also performed. The power futures are strongly correlated with European gas prices. The clean spark spreads built with prompt contracts tend to be positive. The biggest clean spark spreads are for the month contract, followed by the quarter contract and then by the year contract. Therefore, gas fired generation companies can maximize profits trading with contracts of shorter maturity. Market monitoring reports by the market operator providing post-trade transparency, OTC data access by the energy regulator, and assessment of the regulatory risk can contribute to efficiency gains. The same recommendations are also valid for a potential Iberian gas futures market, once an Iberian gas hub ��� currently in a design phase, with monthly meetings amongst the stakeholders in a Working Group led by the Spanish energy regulatory authority since January 2013 ��� is operating. The Iberian gas hub would bring transparency attracting more shippers and improving competition and thus its efficiency, as no gas price is currently disclosed in the existing OTC market.

An��lisis del sector y mercado gasista nacional e internacional. : el Hub ib��rico y su adaptaci��n al sistema espa��ol

Actualmente existe un gran inter��s orientado hacia el mercado del gas natural. Son muchas las razones por las que este combustible se posiciona como uno de los m��s importantes dentro del panorama energ��tico mundial. Adem��s de que salvar��a el hueco dejado por el carb��n y el petr��leo, supone una alternativa mucho m��s limpia que se podr��a desarrollar a��n m��s tanto a nivel dom��stico, industrial como en el mundo de los transportes. La industria del gas natural est�� cambiando r��pidamente fundamentalmente por la aparici��n del gas no convencional y sus t��cnicas de extracci��n. Por lo que se est�� produciendo un cambio en la econom��a de la producci��n de gas as�� como en la din��mica y los movimientos del GNL a lo largo de todo el planeta. El prop��sito de este estudio es enfocar el estado del sector y mercado del gas natural en todo el mundo y de esta forma subrayar las principales regiones que marcan la tendencia general de los precios de todo el planeta. Adem��s, este trabajo reflejar�� los pron��sticos esperados para los pr��ximos a��os as�� como un resumen de las tendencias que se han seguido hasta el momento. Particularmente, se centrar�� la atenci��n en el movimiento hacia los sistemas basados en forma de hub que comenzaron en EE.UU. y que llegaron a Reino Unido y al continente Europeo a principios del S.XX. Esta tendencia es la que se pretende implantar en Espa��a con el fin de conseguir una mayor competitividad, flexibilidad y liquidez en los precios y en el sistema gasista. De esta forma, poco a poco se ir�� construyendo la estructura hacia un Mercado ��nico Europeo que es el objetivo final que plantean los organismos de los estados miembros. Sin embargo, para la puesta en marcha de este nuevo modelo es necesario realizar una serie de cambios en el sistema como la modificaci��n de la Ley de Hidrocarburos, la designaci��n de un Operador de Mercado, elaboraci��n de una serie de reglas para regular el mercado as�� como fomentar la liquidez del mercado. Cuando tenga lugar el cambio regulatorio, la liquidez del sistema espa��ol incrementar�� y se dar�� la oportunidad de crear nuevas formas para balancear las carteras de gas y establecer nuevas estrategias para gestionar el riesgo. No obstante, antes de que se hagan efectivos los cambios en la legislaci��n, se implantar��a uno de los modelos planteados en el ���Gas Target Model���, el denominado ���Modelo de Asignaci��n de Capacidad Impl��cita���. La introducci��n de este modelo ser��a un primer paso para la integraci��n de un mercado de gas sin la necesidad de afrontar un cambio legislativo, lo que servir��a de VIII impulso para alcanzar el ���Modelo de ��rea de Mercado��� que ser��a el mejor para el sistema gasista espa��ol y se conectar��a ampliamente con el resto de mercados europeos. Las conclusiones del estudio en relaci��n a la formaci��n del nuevo modelo en forma de hub plantean la necesidad de aprovechar al m��ximo la nueva situaci��n y conseguir implantar el hub lo antes posible para poder dotar al sistema de mayor competencia y liquidez. Adem��s, el sistema espa��ol debe aprovechar su gran capacidad y moderna infraestructura para convertir al pa��s en la entrada de gas del suroeste de Europa ampliando as�� la seguridad de suministro de los pa��ses miembros. Otra conclusi��n que se puede extraer del informe es la necesidad de ampliar el ��ndice de penetraci��n del gas en Espa��a e incentivar el consumo frente a otros combustibles f��siles como el carb��n y el petr��leo. Esto situar��a al gas natural como la principal energ��a de respaldo con respecto a las renovables y permitir��a disminuir los precios del kilovatio hora del gas natural. El estudio y an��lisis de la din��mica que se viene dando en la industria del gas en el mundo es fundamental para poder anticiparse y planear las mejores estrategias frente a los cambios que poco a poco ir��n modificando el sector y el mercado gasista. ABSTRACT There is a great deal of focus on the natural gas market at the moment. Whether you view natural gas as bridging the gap between coal/oil and an altogether cleaner solution yet to be determined, or as a destination fuel which will be used not only for heating and gas fired generation but also as transportation fuel, there is no doubt that natural gas will have an increasingly important role to play in the global energy landscape. The natural gas industry is changing rapidly, as shale gas exploration changes the economics of gas production and LNG connects regions across the globe. The purpose of this study is to outline the present state of the global gas industry highlighting the differing models around the world. This study will pay particular attention to the move towards hub based pricing that has taken hold first in the US and over the past decade across the UK and Continental Europe. In the coming years the Spanish model will move towards hub based pricing. As gas market regulatory change takes hold, liquidity in the Spanish gas market will increase, bringing with it new ways to balance gas portfolios and placing an increasing focus on managing price risk. This study will in turn establish the links between the changes that have taken place in other markets as a way to better understanding how the Spanish market will evolve in the coming years.

Sistema de descarga para metaneros de hasta 145000 m3 con gasinera para buques a propulsi��n de GNL

Current social demand for more environmentally-friendly fuels environment has imposed stringent emissions standards infectious greenhouse affecting all means of transport, including maritime. A few free zones emissions (ECA) in waters around the world have been established. This has driven to the Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG) as the fuel of the future for ships to comply with emissions laid down by the Convention International Prevention of the Pollution from Ships (MARPOL). The present work proposes the installation of a LNG station for ships in the future regasification plant of Granadilla (Santa Cruz de Tenerife). The work has understood the design and sizing of the receiving of the regasification plant terminal pipelines, as well as pipes for the LNG station. La demanda social actual por combustibles m��s respetuosos con el medio ambiente ha impuesto unas estrictas normas de emisiones de gases infecto invernadero que afectan a todos los medios de transporte, incluido el mar��timo. Se han establecido unas zonas libres de emisiones (ECA) en aguas de todo el mundo. Esto ha impulsado al Gas Natural Licuado (GNL) como el combustible del futuro para buques para cumplir con las emisiones fijadas por la Convenci��n Internacional de Prevenci��n de la Contaminaci��n de Barcos (MARPOL). El presente trabajo propone la instalaci��n de una gasinera para buques en la futura planta de regasificaci��n de Granadilla (Santa Cruz de Tenerife). El trabajo ha comprendido el dise��o y dimensionamiento de las tuber��as de la terminal de recepci��n de la planta de regasificaci��n, as�� como las tuber��as para la gasinera.

Energetic performance of landfill and digester biogas in a domestic cooker

The energetic performance of landfill biogas (LB) and biodigester biogas (BB) from municipal waste was examined in consumption tests. These tests were performed in situ at a gas generation plant associated with a landfill facility in Madrid (Spain) and following the standard UNE-EN 30-2-1 (1999). The jets of a domestic cooker commonly used for natural gas (NG) or liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) were modified to operate with the biogases produced at the facility. The working pressures best suited to the tested gases, i.e., to avoid flashback and flame lift, and to ensure the stability and correct functioning of the flame during combustion, were determined by trial and error. Both biogases returned optimum energetic performance for the transfer of heat to water in a metallic recipient (as required by the above standard) at a supply pressure of 10 mbar. Domestic cookers are normally supplied with NG at a pressure of 20 mbar, at which pressure the energetic performance of G20 reference gas was higher than that of both biogases (52.84% compared to 38.06% and 49.77% respectively). Data concerning these issues involving also unexplored feedstock are required for the correct conversions of domestic cookers in order to avoid risks of serious personal injuries or property damages.

Life cycle assessment as a policy-support tool: the case of taxis in the city of Madrid

This paper examined the potentialities of Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) as instrument for policy-support. To this respect, the adoption of an initiative within the Madrid Air Quality Plan (AQP) 2011���2015 regarding the substitution of diesel taxis with hybrid, natural gas and LPG alternatives was studied. Four different scenarios were elaborated, a business-as-usual scenario (BAU), the scenario of the AQP, and two extreme-situation scenarios: all-diesel (ADI) and all-ecologic (AEC). Impacts were characterized according to the ILCD methodology, focusing especially on climate change (CC) and photochemical ozone formation (PO). SimaPro 7.3 was used as analysis and inventory-construction tool. The results indicate that the shift to ecologic alternatives reduced impacts, especially those related to CC and PO. For the complete life cycle, reductions of 13% (CC) and 25% (PO) were observed for AQP against BAU (CC:1365 GgCO2, PO:13336 MgNMVOC). Deeper reductions were observed for AEC (CC:34%, PO:59%), while ADI produced slight increases in impacts if against BAU. The analysis of the use-phase revealed that the central and highest speed zones of the city benefit from the adoption of AQP. This is especially evident in zone 7, with reductions of 16% in CC and 31% in PO respectively against BAU (CCzone1:3443 kgCO2/veh��km, POzone7:11.1 kgNMVOC/veh��km).