Bayesian analysis of correlated evolution of discrete characters by reversible-jump Markov chain Monte Carlo

We describe a Bayesian method for investigating correlated evolution of discrete binary traits on phylogenetic trees. The method fits a continuous-time Markov model to a pair of traits, seeking the best fitting models that describe their joint evolution on a phylogeny. We employ the methodology of reversible-jump ( RJ) Markov chain Monte Carlo to search among the large number of possible models, some of which conform to independent evolution of the two traits, others to correlated evolution. The RJ Markov chain visits these models in proportion to their posterior probabilities, thereby directly estimating the support for the hypothesis of correlated evolution. In addition, the RJ Markov chain simultaneously estimates the posterior distributions of the rate parameters of the model of trait evolution. These posterior distributions can be used to test among alternative evolutionary scenarios to explain the observed data. All results are integrated over a sample of phylogenetic trees to account for phylogenetic uncertainty. We implement the method in a program called RJ Discrete and illustrate it by analyzing the question of whether mating system and advertisement of estrus by females have coevolved in the Old World monkeys and great apes.

Recorded quadrant incidence of female breast cancer in Great Britain suggests a disproportionate increase in the upper outer quadrant of the breast

Background: The upper outer quadrant (UOQ) of the breast is the most frequent site for incidence of breast cancel; but the reported disproportionate incidence in this quadrant appears to rise with year of publication. Materials and Methods: In order to determine whether this increasing incidence in the UOQ is an artifact of different study populations or is chronological, data have been analysed for annual quadrant incidence of female breast cancer recorded nationally in England and Wales between 1979 and 2000 and in Scotland between 1980 and 2001. Results: In England and Wales, the recorded incidence of female breast cancer in the UOQ rose front 47.9% in 1979 to 53.3% in 2000, and has done so linearly over tune with a con-elation coefficient R of +/- 0.71 +/- SD 0.01 (p < 0.001). Analysis of independent data front Scotland showed a similar trend in that recorded female breast cancer had also increased in the UOQ from 38.3% in 1980 to 54.7% in 2001, with a con-elation coefficient R for the linear annual increase of +0.80 +/- SD 0.03 (p < 0.001). Conclusion: These results are inconsistent with current views that the high level of UOQ breast cancer is due solely to a greater amount of target epithelial tissue in that region. Identification of the reasons for such a disproportionate site-specific increase could provide clues as to causative factors in breast cancer.

Movements, activity patterns and home range of a female brown bear (Ursus arctos, L.) in the Rodopi Mountain Range, Greece

Movements and activity patterns of an adult radio-tagged female brown bear accompanied by her cubs were documented for the first time in Rodopi area (NE Greece) from August 2000 to July 2002. Average daily movements were 2.45 +/- 2.26 SD km, (range 0.15-8.5 km). The longest daily range could be related to human disturbance (hunting activity). The longest seasonal distance (211 km), during Summer 2001 coincided with the dissolution of the family. With cubs, the female was more active during daytime (73 % of all radio-readings) than when solitary (28 %). The female switched to a more crepuscular behaviour, after separation from the yearling (July 2001). According to pooled data from 924 activity - recording sessions, during the whole monitoring period, the female was almost twice as active during day time while rearing cubs (51 % active) than when solitary (23 %). The autumn and early winter home range size of the family was larger (280 km(2)) than after the separation from the cubs (59 km(2)). During the family group phase, home range size varied from 258 km(2) in autumn to 40 km(2) in winter (average denning period lasted 107 days : December 2000-March 2001). The bear hibernated in the Bulgarian part of the Rodopi Range during winters of 2001 and 2002.

Probiotics and prebiotics in female health

Functional foods such as probiotics, prebiotics and nutraceuticals are of extreme interest to researchers. There is growing evidence that these food ingredients may improve and in some cases treat certain conditions that are implicated in women's health. The use of probiotics (live, beneficial bacteria) in improving gastrointestinal and non-gastrointestinal tract conditions such as irritable bowel syndrome, candidiasis and other female urogenital tract conditions are reviewed. Emphasis is also given to the importance of prebiotics (non-digestible food ingredients) in osteoporosis management and alleviation of menopausal symptoms and reducing the onset of cancer.

Career journeys and turning points of senior female managers in small construction firms

There is under-representation of senior female managers within small construction firms in the United Kingdom. The position is denying the sector a valuable pool of labour to address acute knowledge and skill shortages. Grounded theory on the career progression of senior female managers in these firms is developed from biographical interviews. First, a turning point model which distinguishes the interplay between human agency and work/home structure is given. Second, four career development phases are identified. The career journeys are characterized by ad hoc decisions and opportunities which were not influenced by external policies aimed at improving the representation of women in construction. Third, the 'hidden', but potentially significant, contribution of women-owned small construction firms is noted. The key challenge for policy and practice is to balance these external approaches with recognition of the 'inside out' reality of the 'lived experiences' of female managers. To progress this agenda there is a need for: appropriate longitudinal statistical data to quantify the scale of senior female managers and owners of small construction firms over time; and, social construction and gendered organizational analysis research to develop a general discourse on gender difference with these firms.

Nutritional status and clinical outcome in elderly female surgical orthopaedic patients

The possible relationship between nutritional status and clinical outcome following orthopaedic hip surgery was investigated. The nutritional status of 60 elderly female patients admitted for elective total hip replacement (THR) and emergency fractured neck of femur surgery (FNF) was measured over time. Specific measures of clinical outcome, including well-being and functional status, were monitored during hospital stay and at 4, 8 and 26 weeks following discharge. Patients were allocated to a high nutritional risk group where any three of the following were less than the 5th percentile value: serum albumin, haemoglobin, triceps skinfold thickness, mid-upper arm muscle circumference and body weight. Using this definition, malnutrition was present in 4% of THR patients and 41% of FNF patients. It was found that the high risk patients had significantly longer convalescence periods, (median stay27.5 days compared with 0 days, P < 0.0009), and a greater proportion were dependent upon walking frames at 6 months (46% compared with 11%, P < 0.01). Fifty percent of the high risk patients had been living independently prior to admission, in contrast only 29% had returned to their homes at 6 months after discharge. The results indicate an apparent link between clinical outcome and nutritional status based upon the allocation procedure employed, which has the potential for ensuring cost-effective nutritional intervention.

A behavioral comparison of male and female adults with high functioning autism spectrum conditions

Autism spectrum conditions (ASC) affect more males than females in the general population. However, within ASC it is unclear if there are phenotypic sex differences. Testing for similarities and differences between the sexes is important not only for clinical assessment but also has implications for theories of typical sex differences and of autism. Using cognitive and behavioral measures, we investigated similarities and differences between the sexes in age- and IQ-matched adults with ASC (high-functioning autism or Asperger syndrome). Of the 83 (45 males and 38 females) participants, 62 (33 males and 29 females) met Autism Diagnostic Interview-Revised (ADI-R) cut-off criteria for autism in childhood and were included in all subsequent analyses. The severity of childhood core autism symptoms did not differ between the sexes. Males and females also did not differ in self-reported empathy, systemizing, anxiety, depression, and obsessive-compulsive traits/symptoms or mentalizing performance. However, adult females with ASC showed more lifetime sensory symptoms (p = 0.036), fewer current socio-communication difficulties (p = 0.001), and more self-reported autistic traits (p = 0.012) than males. In addition, females with ASC who also had developmental language delay had lower current performance IQ than those without developmental language delay (p<0.001), a pattern not seen in males. The absence of typical sex differences in empathizing-systemizing profiles within the autism spectrum confirms a prediction from the extreme male brain theory. Behavioral sex differences within ASC may also reflect different developmental mechanisms between males and females with ASC. We discuss the importance of the superficially better socio-communication ability in adult females with ASC in terms of why females with ASC may more often go under-recognized, and receive their diagnosis later, than males.