Modeling of water/steam circulation in Circulating Fluidized Bed boiler

A distinctive design feature of steam boiler with natural circulation is the presence of the steam drum which plays a role of the separator of vapor from the flow of water-and-steam mixture coming into steam drum from the furnace tubes. Steam drum with unheated downcomer tubes, deducing from it, and riser (screen/furnace tubes) inside the furnace is a closed circulation loop in which movement of water (downcomer tubes) and water-and-steam mixture (riser tubes) is organized. The movement of the working fluid is appears due to occurrence of the natural pressure, determined by the difference in hydrostatic pressure and the mass of water and water-and-steam mixtures in downcomer and riser tubes and called the driving pressure of the natural circulation: S drive = H steam (ρ down + ρ mix) g where: ρ down - density of water in downcomer tubes; ρ mix - density of water in riser tubes; H steam - height of steam content section; g - acceleration of gravity. In steam boilers with natural circulation the circulation rate is usually between 10 and 30. Thus, consumption of water in the circulation circuit “circulation rate times” more than steam output of the boiler. There are two aspects of the design of natural water circulation loops. One is to ensure a sufficient mass flux of circulating water to avoid burnout of evaporator tubes. The other is to avoid tube wall temperature fluctuation and tube vibration due to oscillation of circulation velocity. The design criteria are therefore reduced, in principle, to those of critical heat flux, critical flow rate for burnout, and flow instability. In practical design, however, the circulation velocity and the void fraction at the evaporator tube outlet are used as the design criteria (Seikan I., et. al., 1999). This study has been made with assumption that the heat flux in the furnace of the boiler even all the time. The target of the study was to define the circulation rate of the boiler, thus average heat flux do not change it. I would like to acknowledge professionals from “Foster Wheeler” company for good and comfortable cooperation.

Progresso da ferrugem tropical do milho (Zea mays L.), sob diferentes tratamentos fungicidas

A ferrugem tropical, cujo agente causal é o fungo Physopella zeae (Mains) Cummins & Ramachar vem se destacando por sua agressividade à cultura do milho. Objetivou-se, com este trabalho, ajustar modelos matemáticos às curvas de progresso desta doença sob a ação de misturas de triazóis e estrobilurinas sobre o fungo na cultura do milho. O experimento foi conduzido em área experimental do Departamento de Fitossanidade da UNESP, Campus de Jaboticabal, no período de janeiro a maio de 2006, no delineamento de blocos casualizados completos com 6 tratamentos e 4 repetições. Os tratamentos utilizados foram (mL de p.c./ha): 1 - testemunha; 2 - epoxiconazole + pyraclostrobin, 500; 3 - epoxiconazole + pyraclostrobin, 750; 4 - azoxystrobin + cyproconazole, 300 + óleo mineral parafínico 0,50%, estes aplicados às plantas no estádio V8; 5 - azoxystrobin + cyproconazole, 300 + óleo mineral parafínico 0,50%, este aplicado às plantas no estádio V8 e repetido quando esta encontrava-se no início do pendoamento e 6- azoxystrobin + cyproconazole, 450 + óleo mineral parafínico 0,50%, aplicado às plantas no estádio V8. Foram realizadas sete avaliações da severidade da doença com intervalos semanais, traçando-se a partir dos dados obtidos nestas avaliações as curvas de progresso da doença analisadas por meio do ajuste a três modelos matemáticos (monomolecular, logístico e de Gompertz). Calculou-se ainda a Área Abaixo das Curvas de Progresso da Doença (AACPD), resultante de cada tratamento. Procedeu-se à análise de variância dos dados e as médias foram comparadas pelo teste Tukey ao nível de 5 % de probabilidade. Verificou-se que não houve diferença significativa entre os efeitos dos tratamentos 4, 5 e 6 e esses proporcionaram menor AACPD e ainda que esses apresentaram eficiência de controle de 92 %, 97 % e 98 %, respectivamente. Pelos resultados obtidos, pode-se concluir que o modelo monomolecular foi o que melhor se ajustou aos dados. Não foi observado diferença significativa entre os efeitos dos tratamentos, no que se refere a produtividade.

Análise de danos de colheita de madeira em floresta tropical úmida sob regime de manejo florestal sustentado na Amazônia ocidental

Procurou-se identificar, qualificar e quantificar a intensidade de danos causados pela colheita florestal em uma área com floresta primária explorada (FPE), tendo com testemunha uma área com floresta primária não-explorada (FPNE), com 202 e 204 ha, respectivamente. Na FPNE, foram avaliados os danos decorrentes de causas naturais. As áreas de FPE e de FPNE localizam-se no município de Manicoré, Estado do Amazonas. Realizou-se o inventário utilizando o método de amostragem aleatória, em ambas as áreas. As amostragens foram executadas em dois níveis de inclusão de DAP. No nível I foram instaladas cinco parcelas de 100 x 100 m (1 ha), onde foram inventariadas todas as árvores com DAP > ou = 15 cm. No nível II, as parcelas do nível I foram divididas sistematicamente em subparcelas de 10 x 10 m (100 m²), tendo sido amostradas aleatoriamente cinco subparcelas por parcela do nível I, totalizando 2.500 m², onde foram inventariados todos os indivíduos (varejões) com 5,0 <= DAP < 15 cm. As análises dos danos decorrentes de causas naturais indicaram que na FPNE apenas 10% da vegetação adulta remanescente apresentou danos. Na FPE, os danos causados pelas operações de colheita florestal, incluindo-se o corte e o arraste de toras, totalizaram 29%. As modificações na estrutura diamétrica da FPE foram maiores nas maiores classes de DAP, em que, em geral, foram constatadas reduções de 27, 29 e 30%, respectivamente, no número de árvores (n/ha), na área basal (m²/ha) e no volume (m³/ha). Essa redução de estoque foi considerada normal, uma vez que a amostragem foi realizada imediatamente após a execução das operações de colheita florestal.

Model development for circulating fluidized bed boiler operation

Comprehensive understanding of the heat transfer processes that take place during circulating fluidized bed (CFB) combustion is one of the most important issues in CFB technology development. This leads to possibility of predicting, evaluation and proper design of combustion and heat transfer mechanisms. The aim of this thesis is to develop a model for circulating fluidized bed boiler operation. Empirical correlations are used for determining heat transfer coefficients in each part of the furnace. The proposed model is used both in design and offdesign conditions. During off-design simulations fuel moisture content and boiler load effects on boiler operation have been investigated. In theoretical part of the thesis, fuel properties of most typical classes of biomass are widely reviewed. Various schemes of biomass utilization are presented and, especially, concerning circulating fluidized bed boilers. In addition, possible negative effects of biomass usage in boilers are briefly discussed.

Chlorophyll fluorescence of tropical tree species in a semi-deciduous forest gap

The characterization of different ecological groups in a forest formation/succession is unclear. To better define the different successional classes, we have to consider ecophysiological aspects, such as the capacity to use or dissipate the light energy available. The main objective of this work was to assess the chlorophyll fluorescence emission of tropical tree species growing in a gap of a semi-deciduous forest. Three species of different ecological groups were selected: Croton floribundus Spreng. (pioneer, P), Astronium graveolens Jacq. (early secondary, Si), and Esenbeckia febrifuga A. Juss. (late secondary, St). The potential (Fv/Fm) and effective (deltaF/Fm') quantum efficiency of photosystem II, apparent electron transport rate (ETR), non-photochemical (qN) and photochemical (qP) quenching of fluorescence were evaluated, using a modulated fluorometer, between 7:30 and 11:00 h. Values of Fv/Fm remained constant in St, decreasing in P and Si after 9:30 h, indicating the occurrence of photoinhibition. Concerning the measurements taken under light conditions (deltaF/Fm', ETR, qP and qN), P and Si showed better photochemical performance, i.e., values of deltaF/Fm', ETR and qP were higher than St when light intensity was increased. Values of qN indicated that P and Si had an increasing tendency of dissipating the excess of energy absorbed by the leaf, whereas the opposite was found for St. The principal component analysis (PCA), considering all evaluated parameters, showed a clear distinction between St, P and Si, with P and Si being closer. The PCA results suggest that chlorophyll fluorescence may be a potential tool to differentiate tree species from distinct successional groups.

Um modelo otimizador para organização dos compartimentos de exploração em floresta tropical

Existe a necessidade de garantia de um fluxo constante de madeira com potencial comercial para a viabilidade da pequena propriedade, porém nem sempre isto é possível, pelo fato de os talhões serem pequenos e, principalmente, a distribuição das espécies de interesse na floresta nativa ser irregular, por serem os ecossistemas heterogêneos e pela variedade de tipologias florestais que formam um complexo mosaico. Este trabalho teve como finalidade principal apresentar um modelo matemático que auxilie no planejamento e na distribuição dos talhões em uma pequena propriedade da floresta tropical. O modelo matemático resultou em um novo conceito de talhão. Com base no inventário pré-exploratório, os talhões foram subdivididos em compartimentos, onde foram consideradas características diferenciais como: espécie, volume por espécie, abundância, possibilidade de mercado e, principalmente, valor final de cada subtalhão. Para definição do modelo matemático utilizou-se a PM (programação por metas), que se faz necessária na seleção dos subtalhões, combinando-os e unindo-os em uma área equivalente ou menor que a do compartimento anual original. Este modelo, ao mesmo tempo que organiza novos talhões, determina a taxa de extração anual e sua possível renda, além de limitar a área do compartimento a ser explorado, o que se faz necessário para garantia da regeneração do compartimento no ciclo de corte previsto. Como resultado, o modelo proposto mostrou-se bastante superior ao formal e garantiu sobremaneira o equilíbrio do rendimento anual para o pequeno proprietário.

Validação do mapeamento de uma área de floresta tropical com o uso imagens de videografia aérea e dados de levantamento de campo

Este trabalho apresenta o mapeamento da cobertura vegetal da região da Floresta Nacional do Tapajós (FNT) no Pará, realizado por imagens multitemporais do satélite Landsat. Para a validação do mapeamento, foram utilizadas imagens de videografia aérea e dados de levantamento de campo. Através da análise da matriz de confusão, foram observados uma exatidão global de classificação de 84,5% e um índice kappa de 80,9%. O uso dos mosaicos de videografia aérea e dos pontos de levantamento de campo, dentro de um sistema de informação geográfica, permitiu caracterizar e avaliar a qualidade do mapeamento da região da FNT.

Chloroplastid pigment contents and chlorophyll a fluorescence in Amazonian tropical three species

Plants react to changes in light and hydrological conditions in terms of quantity and composition of chloroplastidic pigments, which affects the photosynthetic properties and consequently the accumulation of plant biomass. Thus, the chloroplastidic pigment concentration and chlorophyll a fluorescence of three Amazonian species (Bertholletia excelsa, Carapa guianensis e Dipteryx odorata) were investigated in sun and shade leaves form the tree crown collected during two distinct periods of precipitation (dry and rainy seasons). Pigment contents were determined by spectrophotometry and fluorescence variables were determined using a portable fluorometer. The results demonstrated that the species showed high concentrations of Chl a, Chl b e Chl total during the wet season in relation to the dry season, especially in shade leaves. A higher concentration of carotenoids was found in B. excelsa, when compared with leaves of C. guianensis and D. odorata. In leaves of B. excelsa and D. odorata no significant difference was found in relation to the photochemistry of photosystem II (Fv/Fm) between the wet and dry seasons. In conclusion, the three species react differently to variations in the light and precipitation conditions regarding light capture, aspects that might be considered in the management of forest plantations.

Análise do mosaico silvático em um fragmento de floresta tropical estacional no sudeste do Brasil

Este estudo foi realizado na "Mata da Câmara", um fragmento de floresta estacional semidecídual localizado em São Roque, SP, e teve como objetivos a identificação e análise do mosaico silvático, discutindo-se a arquitetura atual da floresta e inferindo sobre sua dinâmica de construção. Utilizou-se o método de inventário de linhas interceptadas, em que se amostraram três áreas de 50 × 105 m. Os resultados indicaram que as porcentagens de área ocupada por ecounidades em equilíbrio 2A foram de 46,8%, 48,6% e 75,7%, respectivamente nas três áreas estudadas. Pode-se concluir que na área A há uma floresta jovem, na área B uma floresta em fase de pré-maturidade com sinais de perturbações recentes e antigas e na área C uma floresta madura com alguns sinais de perturbações antigas. Comparando os resultados desta análise com aqueles obtidos através de levantamento fitossociológico, realizado na mesma área, a análise silvigenética mostrou ser mais uma importante ferramenta para discussão da dinâmica florestal, mas que em alguns caso tende a superestimar o grau de maturidade das florestas. No contexto dos fragmentos florestais remanescentes do Estado de São Paulo, pode-se dizer que a Mata da Câmara representa uma área de floresta relativamente bem preservada.

Structural aspects and floristic similarity among tropical dry forest fragments with different management histories in northern Minas Gerais, Brazil

In order to produce useful knowledge to the initiatives of protection and management of forest fragments, more specifically for tropical dry forests which suffer with frequent anthropic activities, and due to the lack of specific studies, this article aimed describe the structure and the floristic similarity among three areas of dry forest with different management histories. The study was developed in Capitão Enéas municipality, Northern Minas Gerais, Brazil, where three fragments were evaluated, being one in regeneration for 30 years, another submitted to occasional fire and the third with selective cut in small scale. The sampling was developed through the point quarter method considering all the alive phanerophyte individuals with circumference at breast height (CBH) > 15 cm. In the three fragments, 512 individuals, distributed in 60 species, 47 genera, and 23 families were sampled. The most representative families were Fabaceae (26), Anacardiaceae (4), Bignoniaceae (3) and Combretaceae (3). However, fourteen families were represented by only one species. Only eight species were common to all fragments - Myracrodruon urundeuva standed out with 26.9% of all sampled individuals - while a great number of species were exclusive of each fragment. The floristic and structural differences between the fragments are possibly related to the history and intensity of management in each area besides the topography variations and the presence or absence of limestone outcrops. These results show the importance of each fragment, indicating that the loss of anyone would cause negative impacts on the regional flora and consequently to the associated biodiversity.

The role of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi on the early-stage restoration of seasonally dry tropical forest in Chamela, Mexico

It was evaluated the effect of two different sources of local inocula from two contrasting sites (mature forest, pasture) of arbuscular mycorrhizae fungi (AMF) and a non-mycorrhizal control on the plant growth of six woody species differing in functional characteristics (slow-, intermediate- and fast-growth), when introduced in a seasonally tropical dry forest (STDF) converted into abandoned pasture. Six plots (12 X 12m) were set as AMF inoculum source. Six replicates of six different species arranged in a Latin Square design were set in each plot. Plant height, cover area and the number of leaves produced by individual plant was measured monthly during the first growing season in each treatment. Species differed in their ability to benefit from AMF and the largest responsiveness in plant height and leaf production was exhibited by the slow-growing species Swietenia humilis, Hintonia latiflora and Cordia alliodora. At the end of the growing season (November), the plant height of the fast growing species Tabebuia donnel-smithii, Ceiba pentandra and Guazuma ulmifolia were not influenced by AMF. However, inocula of AMF increased leaf production of all plant species regardless the functional characteristics of the species, suggesting a better exploitation of above-ground space and generating a light limited environment under the canopy, which contributed to pasture suppression. Inoculation of seedlings planted in abandoned pasture areas is recommended for ecological restoration due to the high responsiveness of seedling growth in most of species. Use of forest inoculum with its higher diversity of AMF could accelerate the ecological restoration of the above and below-ground comunities.

Modelling of combustion and sorbent reactions in three-dimensional flow environment of a circulating fluidized bed furnace

This thesis presents a three-dimensional, semi-empirical, steady state model for simulating the combustion, gasification, and formation of emissions in circulating fluidized bed (CFB) processes. In a large-scale CFB furnace, the local feeding of fuel, air, and other input materials, as well as the limited mixing rate of different reactants produce inhomogeneous process conditions. To simulate the real conditions, the furnace should be modelled three-dimensionally or the three-dimensional effects should be taken into account. The only available methods for simulating the large CFB furnaces three-dimensionally are semi-empirical models, which apply a relatively coarse calculation mesh and a combination of fundamental conservation equations, theoretical models and empirical correlations. The number of such models is extremely small. The main objective of this work was to achieve a model which can be applied to calculating industrial scale CFB boilers and which can simulate all the essential sub-phenomena: fluid dynamics, reactions, the attrition of particles, and heat transfer. The core of the work was to develop the model frame and the required sub-models for determining the combustion and sorbent reactions. The objective was reached, and the developed model was successfully used for studying various industrial scale CFB boilers combusting different types of fuel. The model for sorbent reactions, which includes the main reactions for calcitic limestones, was applied for studying the new possible phenomena occurring in the oxygen-fired combustion. The presented combustion and sorbent models and principles can be utilized in other model approaches as well, including other empirical and semi-empirical model approaches, and CFD based simulations. The main achievement is the overall model frame which can be utilized for the further development and testing of new sub-models and theories, and for concentrating the knowledge gathered from the experimental work carried out at bench scale, pilot scale and industrial scale apparatus, and from the computational work performed by other modelling methods.

A riqueza e composição de formigas como indicadores dos efeitos do manejo florestal de baixo impacto em floresta tropical no estado do Acre

A sustentabilidade da extração madeireira seletiva depende de avaliações de impacto e monitoramento dos fatores abióticos, vegetação e fauna. Os objetivos deste trabalho foram estimar e comparar a riqueza e composição de formigas em área de manejo florestal sustentável de baixo impacto, no Projeto de Assentamento Chico Mendes, no Acre. As coletas foram realizadas com armadilhas pitfall e extrator de Winkler, em 30 parcelas de 10 x 10 m. As parcelas foram igualmente distribuídas em três tratamentos: (1) manejo - base de árvores exploradas em 2007; (2) queda natural - base de árvores caídas naturalmente em área não manejada; e (3) controle - parcela sem queda de árvore na mesma área não manejada. Para a caracterização da vegetação, foram tomadas medidas das variáveis: densidade arbórea e arbustiva, área basal arbórea e de árvores caídas, espessura de serapilheira e cobertura de dossel. A densidade arbórea foi significantemente maior no tratamento controle que no manejo. Diferenças significativas foram encontradas em cobertura de dossel entre os tratamentos controle e manejo e controle e queda natural. Foram coletadas 88 espécies de formigas, distribuídas em sete subfamílias. Não houve diferença na riqueza de espécies entre os tratamentos. Embora menor similaridade tenha sido encontrada entre os tratamentos manejo e controle, não foram observadas grandes diferenças na composição entre eles. Esses resultados indicaram que, nessa área, a atividade de extração madeireira de baixo impacto não afetou a assembleia de formigas, portanto, funcionalmente, essa forma de manejo não acarretou alterações no ecossistema em relação aos serviços associados às formigas.

Does the edge effect influence plant community structure in a tropical dry forest?

Edge effects are considered a key factor in regulating the structure of plant communities in different ecosystems. However, regardless to few studies, edge influence does not seem to be decisive in semiarid regions such as the Brazilian tropical dry forest known as Caatinga but this issue remains inconclusive. The present study tests the null hypothesis that the plant community of shrubs and trees does not change in its structure due to edge effects. Twenty-four plots (20 x 20 m) were set up in a fragment of Caatinga, in which 12 plots were in the forest edges and 12 plots were inside the fragment. Tree richness, abundance and species composition did not differ between edge and interior plots. The results of this study are in agreement with the pattern previously found for semiarid environments and contrasts with previous results obtained in different environments such as Rainforests, Savanna and Forest of Araucaria, which indicate abrupt differences between the border and interior of the plant communities in these ecosystems, and suggest that the community of woody plants of the Caatinga is not ecologically affected by the presence of edges.