Southern pine (plantations)

Southern pine is a well-established group of commercial plantation species in Queensland and produces a premium grade, quality softwood. The southern pines group is valued for excellent growth, straightness, minimal branching, wood density and even wood texture. Southern pine timber products have a well-established processing industry and market in Queensland. It is in demand both nationally and internationally. High-grade sawn wood serves the upper end of the domestic market and exports include sawn wood and woodchip.

Ravenelia acaciae-arabicae and Ravenelia evansii are distinct species on Acacia nilotica subsp. indica in India

The two rust fungi, Ravenelia acaciae-arabicae and R. evansii, were both found on Acacia nilotica subsp. indica in southern (Tamil Nadu) and northern (Gujarat) India. R. acaciae-arabicae has been often incorrectly synonymised with R. evansii, although each has distinctive urediniospores, viz. echinulate in R. acaciae-arabicae and verruculose in R. evansii. Both species are re-described and illustrated from fresh specimens collected in India. Herbarium specimens of R. evansii from South Africa, including the holotype, were also examined. The difficulty in connecting different anamorphic spore stages to either of these teleomorphic rusts is highlighted by the presence of similar aecidia on plants of A. robusta infected with R. evansii in South Africa and on A. nilotica subsp. indica infected with R. acaciae-arabicae in India. It is not known whether these aecidial rusts represent the same species, nor is it known if they represent an aecidial stage of either R. acaciae-arabicae, R. evansii or other rusts.

Integrated disease management of stem end rot of mango in the Southern Philippines

This research aimed to develop and evaluate pre- and postharvest management strategies to reduce stem end rot (SER) incidence and extend saleable life of 'Carabao' mango fruits in Southern Philippines. Preharvest management focused on the development and improvement of fungicide spray program, while postharvest management aimed to develop alternative interventions aside from hot water treatment (HWT). Field evaluation of systemic fungicides, namely azoxystrobin ( Amistar 25SC), tebuconazole ( Folicur 25WP), carbendazim ( Goldazim 500SC), difenoconazole ( Score 250SC) and azoxystrobin+difenoconazole ( Amistar Top), reduced blossom blight severity and improved fruit setting and retention, resulting in higher fruit yield but failed to sufficiently suppress SER incidence. Based on these findings, an improved fungicide spray program was developed taking into account the infection process of SER pathogens and fungicide resistance. Timely application of protectant (mancozeb) and systemic fungicides (azoxystrobin, carbendazim and difenoconazole) during the most critical stages of mango flower and fruit development ensured higher harvestable fruit yield and minimally lowered SER incidence. Control of SER was also achieved by employing postharvest treatment such as HWT (52-55°C for 10 min), which significantly prolonged the saleable life of mango fruits. However, extended hot water treatment (EHWT; 46°C pulp temperature for 15 min), rapid heat treatment (RHT; 59°C for 30-60 sec), fungicide dip and promising biological control agents failed to satisfactorily reduce SER and prolong saleable life. In contrast, the integration of the improved spray program as preharvest management practice, and postharvest treatments such as HWT and fungicide dips (azoxystrobin, 150-175 ppm; carbendazim, 312.5 ppm; and tebuconazole, 125-156 ppm), significantly reduced disease and extended marketable life for utmost 8 days.

The water relations and irrigation requirements of lychee (litchi chinensis sonn.): a review

The results of research into the water relations and irrigation requirements of lychee are collated and reviewed. The stages of plant development are summarised, with an emphasis on factors influencing the flowering process. This is followed by reviews of plant water relations, water requirements, water productivity and, finally, irrigation systems. The lychee tree is native to the rainforests of southern China and northern Vietnam, and the main centres of production remain close to this area. In contrast, much of the research on the water relations of this crop has been conducted in South Africa, Australia and Israel where the tree is relatively new. Vegetative growth occurs in a series of flushes. Terminal inflorescences are borne on current shoot growth under cool (<15 °C), dry conditions. Trees generally do not produce fruit in the tropics at altitudes below 300 m. Poor and erratic flowering results in low and irregular fruit yields. Drought can enhance flowering in locations with dry winters. Roots can extract water from depths greater than 2 m. Diurnal trends in stomatal conductance closely match those of leaf water status. Both variables mirror changes in the saturation deficit of the air. Very little research on crop water requirements has been reported. Crop responses to irrigation are complex. In areas with low rainfall after harvest, a moderate water deficit before floral initiation can increase flowering and yield. In contrast, fruit set and yield can be reduced by a severe water deficit after flowering, and the risk of fruit splitting increased. Water productivity has not been quantified. Supplementary irrigation in South-east Asia is limited by topography and competition for water from the summer rice crop, but irrigation is practised in Israel, South Africa, Australia and some other places. Research is needed to determine the benefits of irrigation in different growing areas. Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2013.

Portrait of Albert Einstein in the Southern California desert Portraits; Men

Verso: "Er sinnt in der Wueste"

Development of cat’s claw creeper leaf-tying moth Hypocosmia pyrochroma (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) at different temperatures: Implications for establishment as a biological control agent in Australia and South Africa

The leaf-tying moth Hypocosmia pyrochroma Jones (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae), a native of sub tropical South America, has been introduced as a biological control agent for cat’s claw creeper, Dolichandra unguis-cati (L.) Lohman (Bignoniaceae), in Australia and South Africa. So far there has been no evidence of its field establishment in either country. A narrow temperature tolerance is a potential limiting factor for the establishment of weed biological control insects in novel habitats. In this study, we evaluated the effect of seven constant temperatures (12–40 °C) on the survival and development of H. pyrochroma in temperature-controlled cabinets. Temperatures between 20 and 30 °C were the most favorable for adult survival, oviposition, egg hatching, and larval and pupal development. Adult survival (12–40 °C) and egg development (15–35 °C) showed tolerance for wider temperature ranges than oviposition, and larval and pupal development, which were all negatively affected by both high (>30 °C) and low (<20 °C) temperatures. The degree-day (DD) requirement to complete a generation was estimated as 877 above a threshold temperature of 12 °C. Based on DD requirements and an obligatory winter diapause of pupae from mid-autumn to mid-spring, the potential number of generations (egg to adult) the leaf-tying moth can complete in a year in Australia or South Africa range from one to three. A climate-matching model predicted that the inland regions of both Australia and South Africa are less favorable for H. pyrochroma than the coastal areas. The study suggested that H. pyrochroma is more likely to establish in the coastal areas of Australia where most of the cat’s claw creeper infestations occur, than in South Africa where most of the cat’s claw creeper infestations are inland.

Hanukkah lamp from North Africa Coin

Obverse: Silver 1 Lira coin. Reverse: Hanukkah lamp from North Africa

Evidence that dicot-infecting mastreviruses are particularly prone to inter-species recombination and have likely been circulating in Australia for longer than in Africa and the Middle East

Viruses of the genus Mastrevirus (family Geminiviridae) are transmitted by leafhoppers and infect either mono- or dicotyledonous plants. Here we have determined the full length sequences of 49 dicot-infecting mastrevirus isolates sampled in Australia, Eritrea, India, Iran, Pakistan, Syria, Turkey and Yemen. Comprehensive analysis of all available dicot-infecting mastrevirus sequences showed the diversity of these viruses in Australia to be greater than in the rest of their known range, consistent with earlier studies, and that, in contrast with the situation in monocot-infecting mastreviruses, detected inter-species recombination events outnumbered intra-species recombination events. Consistent with Australia having the greatest diversity of known dicot-infecting mastreviruses phylogeographic analyses indicating the most plausible scheme for the spread of these viruses to their present locations, suggest that most recent common ancestor of these viruses is likely nearer Australia than it is to the other regions investigated.

Suspected Pyrrolizidine Alkaloid Hepatotoxicosis in Wild Southern Hairy-Nosed Wombats (Lasiorhinus latifrons)

Southern hairy-nosed wombats (Lasiorhinus latifrons) inhabiting degraded habitat in South Australia were recently identified with extensive hair loss and dermatitis and were in thin to emaciated body condition. Pathological and clinicopathological investigations on affected juvenile wombats identified a toxic hepatopathy suggestive of plants containing pyrrolizidine alkaloids, accompanied by photosensitive dermatitis. Hepatic disease was suspected in additional wombats on the basis of serum biochemical analysis. Preliminary toxicological analysis performed on scats and gastrointestinal contents from wombats found in this degraded habitat identified a number of toxic pyrrolizidine alkaloids consistent with ingestion of Heliotropeum europaeum. Although unpalatable, ingestion may occur by young animals due to decreased availability of preferred forages in degraded habitats and the emergence of weeds around the time of weaning of naive animals. Habitat degradation leading to malnutrition and ingestion of toxic weed species is a significant welfare issue in this species.

Anthelmintic resistance in ovine gastrointestinal nematodes in inland southern Queensland

Objective To establish the prevalence of anthelmintic resistance in ovine gastrointestinal nematodes in southern Queensland. Design An observational parasitological study using the faecal egg count reduction test. Methods Sheep farms (n = 20) enrolled in this study met the twin criteria of using worm testing for drench decisions and having concerns about anthelmintic efficacy. On each farm, 105 sheep were randomly allocated to one of six treatment groups or an untreated control group. Faecal samples were collected on day 0 and days 10–14 for worm egg counts and larval differentiation. Single- and multi-combination anthelmintics, persistent and non-persistent, oral liquid or capsule, pour-on and injectable formulations were tested. Monepantel was not tested. Farmers also responded to a questionnaire on drenching practices. Results Haemonchus contortus was the predominant species. Efficacy <95% was recorded on 85% of farms for one or more anthelmintics and on 10% of farms for six anthelmintics. No resistance was identified on three farms. The 4-way combination product was efficacious (n = 4 farms). Napthalophos resistance was detected on one farm only. Resistance to levamisole (42% of farms), moxidectin injection (50% of farms) and the closantel/abamectin combination (67% of farms) was identified. Moxidectin oral was efficacious against Trichostrongylus colubriformis, which was predominant on only one farm. Of the farms tested, 55% ran meat breeds, 60% dosed more than the recommended dose rate and 70% always, mostly or when possible practised a ‘drench and move’ strategy. Conclusion This level of anthelmintic resistance in southern Queensland will severely compromise worm control and force increased use of monepantel.

Robust features of future climate change impacts on sorghum yields in West Africa

West Africa is highly vulnerable to climate hazards and better quantification and understanding of the impact of climate change on crop yields are urgently needed. Here we provide an assessment of near-term climate change impacts on sorghum yields in West Africa and account for uncertainties both in future climate scenarios and in crop models. Towards this goal, we use simulations of nine bias-corrected CMIP5 climate models and two crop models (SARRA-H and APSIM) to evaluate the robustness of projected crop yield impacts in this area. In broad agreement with the full CMIP5 ensemble, our subset of bias-corrected climate models projects a mean warming of +2.8 °C in the decades of 2031–2060 compared to a baseline of 1961–1990 and a robust change in rainfall in West Africa with less rain in the Western part of the Sahel (Senegal, South-West Mali) and more rain in Central Sahel (Burkina Faso, South-West Niger). Projected rainfall deficits are concentrated in early monsoon season in the Western part of the Sahel while positive rainfall changes are found in late monsoon season all over the Sahel, suggesting a shift in the seasonality of the monsoon. In response to such climate change, but without accounting for direct crop responses to CO2, mean crop yield decreases by about 16–20% and year-to-year variability increases in the Western part of the Sahel, while the eastern domain sees much milder impacts. Such differences in climate and impacts projections between the Western and Eastern parts of the Sahel are highly consistent across the climate and crop models used in this study. We investigate the robustness of impacts for different choices of cultivars, nutrient treatments, and crop responses to CO2. Adverse impacts on mean yield and yield variability are lowest for modern cultivars, as their short and nearly fixed growth cycle appears to be more resilient to the seasonality shift of the monsoon, thus suggesting shorter season varieties could be considered a potential adaptation to ongoing climate changes. Easing nitrogen stress via increasing fertilizer inputs would increase absolute yields, but also make the crops more responsive to climate stresses, thus enhancing the negative impacts of climate change in a relative sense. Finally, CO2 fertilization would significantly offset the negative climate

Sexual reproduction in chydorid cladocerans (Anomopoda, Chydoridae) in southern Finland - implications for paleolimnology

The relationship between sexual reproduction of littoral chydorid cladocerans (Anomopoda, Chydoridae) and environmental factors in aquatic ecosystems has been rarely studied, although the sexual behavior of some planktonic cladocerans is well documented. Ecological monitoring was used to study the relationship between climate-related and non-climatic environmental factors and chydorid sexual reproduction patterns in nine environmentally different lakes that were closely situated to each other in southern Finland. Furthermore, paleolimnological ephippium analysis was used to clarify how current sexual reproduction is reflected in surface sediments of the same nine lakes. Additionally, short sediment cores from two of the lakes were studied with ephippium analysis to examine how recent climate-related and non-climatic environmental changes were reflected in chydorid sexual reproduction. Ephippium analysis uses the subfossil shells of asexual individuals to represent asexual reproduction and the shells of sexual females, i.e. ephippia, to represent sexual reproduction. The relative proportion of ephippia of all chydorid species, i.e. total chydorid ephippia (TCE) indicates the relative proportion of sexual reproduction during the open-water season. This thesis is part of the EPHIPPIUM-project which aims to develop ephippium analysis towards a quantitative climate reconstruction tool. To be able to develop a valid climate model, the influence of the environmental stressors other than climate on contemporary sexual reproduction and its reflection in sediment assemblages must be clarified so they can be eliminated from the model. During contemporary monitoring a few sexual individuals were observed during summer, apparently forced to sexual reproduction by non-climatic local environmental factors, such as crowding or invertebrate predation. Monitoring also revealed that the autumnal chydorid sexual reproduction period was consistent between the different lakes and climate-related factors appeared to act as the main inducers and regulators of autumnal sexual reproduction. However, during autumn, chydorid species and populations among the lakes exhibited a wide variation in the intensity, induction time, and length of autumnal sexual reproduction. These variations apparently act as mechanisms for local adaptations due to the genetic variability provided by sexual reproduction that enhance the ecological flexibility of chydorid species, allowing them to inhabit a wide range of environments. A large variation was also detected in the abundance of parthenogenetic and gamogenetic individuals during the open-water season among the lakes. On the basis of surface sediment samples, the general level of the TCE is ca. 3-4% in southern Finland, reflecting an average proportion of sexual reproduction in this specific climate. The variation in the TCE was much lower than could be expected on the basis of the monitoring results. This suggests that some of the variation detected by monitoring may derive from differences between sampling sites and years smoothed out in the sediment samples, providing an average of the entire lake area and several years. The TCE is always connected to various ecological interactions in lake ecosystems and therefore is always lake-specific. Hypothetically, deterioration of climate conditions can be detected in the TCE as an increase in ephippia of all chydorid species, since a shortening open-water season is reflected in the relative proportions of the two reproduction modes. Such an increase was clearly detected for the time period of the Little Ice Age in a sediment core. The paleolimnological results also indicated that TCE can suddenly increase due to ephippia of one or two species, which suggests that at least some chydorids can somehow increase the production of resting eggs under local environmental stress. Thus, some environmental factors may act as species-specific environmental stressors. The actual mechanism of the increased sexual reproduction seen in sediments has been unknown but the present study suggests that the mechanism is probably the increased intensity of gamogenesis, i.e. that a larger proportion of individuals in autumnal populations reproduce sexually, which results in a larger proportion of ephippia in sediments and a higher TCE. The results of this thesis demonstrate the utility of ephippium analysis as a paleoclimatological method which may also detect paleolimnological changes by identifying species-specific environmental stressors. For a quantitative TCE-based climate reconstruction model, the natural variation in the TCE of surface sediments in different climates must be clarified with more extensive studies. In addition, it is important to recognize the lakes where the TCE is not only a reflection of the length of the open-water season, but is also non-climatically forced. The results of ephippium analysis should always be interpreted in a lake-specific manner and in the context of other paleoecological proxies.

Old colonies and new settlements in Southern Ukraine and Crimea

Digital image

Perennial pastures for marginal farming country in southern Queensland. 1. Grass establishment techniques

Efficient ways to re-establish pastures are needed on land that requires a rotation between pastures and crops. We conducted trials in southern inland Queensland with a range of tropical perennial grasses sown into wheat stubble that was modified in various ways. Differing seedbed preparations involved cultivation or herbicide sprays, with or without fertilizer at sowing. Seed was broadcast and sowing time ranged from spring through to autumn on 3 different soil types. Seed quality and post-sowing rainfall were major determinants of the density of sown grass plants in the first year. Light cultivation sometimes enhanced establishment compared with herbicide spraying of standing stubble, most often on harder-setting soils. A nitrogen + phosphorus mixed fertilizer rarely produced any improvement in sown grass establishment and sometimes increased weed competition. The effects were similar for all types of grass seed from hairy fascicles to large, smooth panicoid seeds and minute Eragrostis seeds. There was a strong inverse relationship between the initial density of sown grass established and the level of weed competition.