Costs increase as ritualized fighting progresses within and between phases in the sierra dome spider, Neriene litigiosa

Magnitudes and patterns of energy expenditure in animal contests are seldom measured, but can be critical for predicting contest dynamics and understanding the evolution of ritualized fighting behaviour. In the sierra dome spider, males compete for sexual access to females and their webs. They show three distinct phases of fighting behaviour, escalating from ritualized noncontact display (phase 1) to cooperative wrestling (phase 2), and finally to unritualized, potentially fatal fighting (phase 3). Using CO2 respirometry, we estimated energetic costs of male-male combat in terms of mean and maximum metabolic rates and the rate of increase in energy expenditure. We also investigated the energetic consequences of age and body mass, and compared fighting metabolism to metabolism during courtship. All three phases involved mean energy expenditures well above resting metabolic rate (3.5 X, 7.4 X and 11.5 X). Both mean and maximum energy expenditure became substantially greater as fights escalated through successive phases. The rates of increase in energy use during phases 2 and 3 were much higher than in phase 1. In addition, age and body mass affected contest energetics. These results are consistent with a basic prediction of evolutionarily stable strategy contest models, that sequences of agonistic behaviours should be organized into phases of escalating energetic costs. Finally, higher energetic costs of escalated fighting compared to courtship provide a rationale for first-male sperm precedence in this spider species. (C) 2004 The Association for the Study of Animal Behaviour. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Multivariate quantitative genetics and the Lek Paradox: Genetic variance in male sexually selected traits of Drosophila serrata under field control

Single male sexually selected traits have been found to exhibit substantial genetic variance, even though natural and sexual selection are predicted to deplete genetic variance in these traits. We tested whether genetic variance in multiple male display traits of Drosophila serrata was maintained under field conditions. A breeding design involving 300 field-reared males and their laboratory-reared offspring allowed the estimation of the genetic variance-covariance matrix for six male cuticular hydrocarbons (CHCs) under field conditions. Despite individual CHCs displaying substantial genetic variance under field conditions, the vast majority of genetic variance in CHCs was not closely associated with the direction of sexual selection measured on field phenotypes. Relative concentrations of three CHCs correlated positively with body size in the field, but not under laboratory conditions, suggesting condition-dependent expression of CHCs under field conditions. Therefore condition dependence may not maintain genetic variance in preferred combinations of male CHCs under field conditions, suggesting that the large mutational target supplied by the evolution of condition dependence may not provide a solution to the lek paradox in this species. Sustained sexual selection may be adequate to deplete genetic variance in the direction of selection, perhaps as a consequence of the low rate of favorable mutations expected in multiple trait systems.

Communication in coral reef fish: the role of ultraviolet colour patterns in damselfish territorial behaviour

Many coral reef fish possess ultraviolet (UV) colour patterns. The behavioural significance of these patterns is poorly understood and experiments on this issue have not been reported for free-living reef fish in their natural environment. The damselfish Pomacentrus amboinensis has UV facial patterns, and spectroradiometric ocular media measurements show that it has the potential for UV vision. To test the potential behavioural significance of the UV patterns, I studied the response of males, in natural territories on the reef and in aquaria, to two conspecific intruders, one presented in a UV-transmitting (UV+) container and the other in a UV-absorbing (UV-) one. Territory owners attacked intruders viewed through UV+ filters significantly more often and for longer than intruders viewed through the UV- filter. In general, the results of the field experiment confirmed those of the laboratory experiment. The results support the hypothesis that P. amboinensis males are sensitive to UV light and that reflectance patterns, which appear in high contrast only in UV, modulate the level of aggressive behaviour. A recent survey showed that many predatory fish may not have UV vision and the use of UV colours in select species of reef fish may therefore serve as a 'private communication channel'. (C) 2004 The Association for the Study of Animal Behaviour. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Contrasting mutual sexual selection on homologous signal traits in Drosophila serrata

The nature of male mating preferences, and how they differ from female mating preferences in species with conventional sex roles, has received little attention in sexual selection studies. We estimated the form and strength of sexual selection as a consequence of male and female mating preferences in a laboratory-based population of Drosophila serrata. The differences between sexual selection on male and female signal traits (cuticular hydrocarbons [CHCs]) were evaluated within a formal framework of linear and nonlinear selection gradients. Females tended to exert linear sexual selection on male CHCs, whereas males preferred intermediate female CHC phenotypes leading to convex (stabilizing) selection gradients. Possible mechanisms determining the nonlinear nature of sexual selection on female CHCs are proposed.

Parallel evolution of sexual isolation in sticklebacks

Mechanisms of speciation are not well understood, despite decades of study. Recent work has focused on how natural and sexual selection cause sexual isolation. Here, we investigate the roles of divergent natural and sexual selection in the evolution of sexual isolation between sympatric species of threespine sticklebacks. We test the importance of morphological and behavioral traits in conferring sexual isolation and examine to what extent these traits have diverged in parallel between multiple, independently evolved species pairs. We use the patterns of evolution in ecological and mating traits to infer the likely nature of selection on sexual isolation. Strong parallel evolution implicates ecologically based divergent natural and/or sexual selection, whereas arbitrary directionality implicates nonecological sexual selection or drift. In multiple pairs we find that sexual isolation arises in the same way: assortative mating on body size and asymmetric isolation due to male nuptial color. Body size and color have diverged in a strongly parallel manner, similar to ecological traits. The data implicate ecologically based divergent natural and sexual selection as engines of speciation in this group.

Reinforcement drives rapid allopatric speciation

Allopatric speciation results from geographic isolation between populations. In the absence of gene flow, reproductive isolation arises gradually and incidentally as a result of mutation, genetic drift and the indirect effects of natural selection driving local adaptation(1-3). In contrast, speciation by reinforcement is driven directly by natural selection against maladaptive hybridization(1,4). This gives individuals that choose the traits of their own lineage greater fitness, potentially leading to rapid speciation between the lineages(1,4). Reinforcing natural selection on a population of one of the lineages in a mosaic contact zone could also result in divergence of the population from the allopatric range of its own lineage outside the zone(4-6). Here we test this with molecular data, experimental crosses, field measurements and mate choice experiments in a mosaic contact zone between two lineages of a rainforest frog. We show that reinforcing natural selection has resulted in significant premating isolation of a population in the contact zone not only from the other lineage but also, incidentally, from the closely related main range of its own lineage. Thus we show the potential for reinforcement to drive rapid allopatric speciation.

The multiple signals assessed by female satin bowerbirds: could they be used to narrow down females' choices of mates?

Female choice based on multiple male traits has been documented in many species but the functions of such multiple traits are still under debate. The satin bowerbird has a polygynous mating system in which males attract females to bowers for mating; females choose mates based on multiple aspects of males and their bowers. In this paper, we demonstrate that females use some cues to decide which males to examine closely and other cues to decide which males to mate with. Female visitation rates to bowers were significantly related to male size and the males' 'solitary' display rates, and, to a lesser extent, to the numbers of bower decorations. After controlling for female visitation rates, it was found that a male's mating success was significantly related to his size and the rate at which he 'painted' his bower with saliva and chewed up plant material.

Rifampicin and sodium fusidate reduces the frequency of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) isolation in adults with cystic fibrosis and chronic MRSA infection

Nosocomial transmission of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) to patients with cystic fibrosis (CF) frequently results in chronic respiratory tract carriage. This is an increasing problem, adds to the burden of glycopeptide antibiotic use in hospitals, and represents a relative contraindication to lung transplantation. The aim of this study was to determine whether it is possible to eradicate MRSA with prolonged oral combination antibiotics, and whether this treatment is associated with improved clinical status. Adult CF patients (six mate, one female) with chronic MRSA infection were treated for six months with rifampicin and sodium fusidate. Outcome data were examined for six months before treatment, on treatment and after treatment. The patients had a mean age of 29.3 (standard deviation = 6.3) years and FEV1 of 36.1% (standard deviation = 12.7) predicted. The mean duration of MRSA isolation was 31 months. MRSA isolates identified in these patients was of the same lineage as the known endemic strain at the hospital when assessed by pulsed-field get electrophoresis. Five of the seven had no evidence of MRSA during and for at [east six months after rifampicin and sodium fusidate. The proportion of sputum samples positive for MRSA was lower during the six months of treatment (0.13) and after treatment (0.19) compared with before treatment (0.85) (P < 0.0001). There was a reduction in the number of days of intravenous antibiotics per six months with 20.3 +/- 17.6 on treatment compared with 50.7 before treatment and 33.0 after treatment (P = 0.02). There was no change in lung function. Gastrointestinal side effects occurred in three, but led to therapy cessation in only one patient. Despite the use of antibiotics with anti-staphylococcal activity for treatment of respiratory exacerbation, MRSA infection persists. MRSA can be eradicated from the sputum of patients with CF and chronic MRSA carriage by using rifampicin and sodium fusidate for six months. This finding was associated with a significant reduction in the duration of intravenous antibiotic treatment during therapy. (C) 2003 The Hospital Infection Society. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Divergent selection and the evolution of signal traits and mating preferences

Mating preferences are common in natural populations, and their divergence among populations is considered an important source of reproductive isolation during speciation. Although mechanisms for the divergence of mating preferences have received substantial theoretical treatment, complementary experimental tests are lacking. We conducted a laboratory evolution experiment, using the fruit fly Drosophila serrata, to explore the role of divergent selection between environments in the evolution of female mating preferences. Replicate populations of D. serrata were derived from a common ancestor and propagated in one of three resource environments: two novel environments and the ancestral laboratory environment. Adaptation to both novel environments involved changes in cuticular hydrocarbons, traits that predict mating success in these populations. Furthermore, female mating preferences for these cuticular hydrocarbons also diverged among populations. A component of this divergence occurred among treatment environments, accounting for at least 17.4% of the among- population divergence in linear mating preferences and 17.2% of the among-population divergence in nonlinear mating preferences. The divergence of mating preferences in correlation with environment is consistent with the classic by- product model of speciation in which premating isolation evolves as a side effect of divergent selection adapting populations to their different environments.

Developmental vitamin D (DVD) deficiency in the rat alters adult behaviour independently of HPA function

Developmental vitamin D deficiency (DVD) has been shown to alter the orderly pattern of brain development. Even though the period of vitamin D deficiency is restricted to gestation this is sufficient to induce behavioural abnormalities in the adult offspring consistent with those seen in many animal models of schizophrenia. Given that some of these behavioural alterations could also be an indirect result of either impaired maternal hypothalamic pituitary axis (HPA) function (which in turn could influence maternal care) or the result of a permanent alteration in HPA function in the adult offspring we have examined HPA status in both maternal animals and adult offspring. In this study we have established that HPA function is normal in the maternally vitamin D deficient rat. We replicate the behavioural phenotype of hyperlocomotion whilst establishing that HPA function is also unchanged in the adult mate offspring. We conclude that the behavioural alterations induced by DVD deficiency are due to some adverse event in brain development rather than via an alteration in stress response. (c) 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Assortative Mating for Cigarette Smoking and for Alcohol Consumption in Female Australian Twins and their Spouses

Background Non-random mating affects population variation for substance use and dependence. Developmentally, mate selection leading to positive spousal correlations for genetic similarity may result in increased risk for substance use and misuse in offspring. Mate selection varies by cohort and thus, assortative mating in one generation may produce marked changes in rates of substance use in the next. We aim to clarify the mechanisms contributing to spousal similarity for cigarette smoking and alcohol consumption. Methods Using data from female twins and their male spouses, we fit univariate and bivariate twin models to examine the contribution of primary assortative mating and reciprocal marital interaction to spousal resemblance for regular cigarette smoking and nicotine dependence, and for regular alcohol use and alcohol dependence. Results We found that assortative mating significantly influenced regular smoking, regular alcohol use, nicotine dependence and alcohol dependence. The bivariate models for cigarette smoking and alcohol consumption also highlighted the importance of primary assortative mating on all stages of cigarette smoking and alcohol consumption, with additional evidence for assortative mating across the two stages of alcohol consumption. Conclusions Women who regularly used, and subsequently were dependent on cigarettes or alcohol were more likely to marry men with similar behaviors. After mate selection had occurred, one partner's cigarette or alcohol involvement did not significantly modify the other partner's involvement with these psychoactive substances.

Can non-directional male mating preferences facilitate honest female ornamentation?

Recent studies have demonstrated male mate choice for female ornaments in species without sex-role reversal. Despite these empirical findings, little is known about the adaptive dynamics of female signalling, in particular the evolution of male mating preferences. The evolution of traits that signal mate quality is more complex in females than in males because females usually provide the bulk of resources for the developing offspring. Here, we investigate the evolution of male mating preferences using a mathematical model which: (i) specifically accounts for the fact that females must trade-off resources invested in ornaments with reproduction; and (ii) allows male mating preferences to evolve a non-directional shape. The optimal adaptive strategy for males is to develop stabilizing mating preferences for female display traits to avoid females that either invests too many or too few resources in ornamentation. However, the evolutionary stability of this prediction is dependent upon the level of error made by females when allocating resources to either signal or fecundity.

Effect of thermal acclimation on female resistance to forced matings in the eastern mosquitofish

All copulations in the eastern mosquitofish, Gambusia holbrooki, are coercive-and-achieved by force. Female G. holbrooki never appear to cooperate with males, but vigorously resist matings at all times. We examined the role of females within a sexually coercive mating system by investigating the ability of female G. holbrooki to resist forced copulations after acclimation to 16 degrees C and 32 degrees C for 4-5 weeks. We also examined burst swimming performance of female G. holbrooki after acclimation, as this trait is likely to underlie a female's ability to resist forced matings. We predicted that if female G. holbrooki indiscriminately resist matings from all males, acclimation would enhance female resistance at their acclimation temperature. However, we found that it did not. We also predicted that if females are able to influence the outcome of mating interactions, acclimation to an optimal thermal environment may induce females to reduce resistance. In support of this prediction, females acclimated at 32 degrees C were able to modify their resistance behaviour between exposure to 16 degrees C and 32 degrees C. The rate of copulations experienced by 32 inverted perpendicular C-acclimated females was 2.5 times greater at 32 degrees C than at 16 degrees C. In addition, acclimation at 32 degrees C significantly enhanced burst swimming performance at 32 degrees C but no effect of acclimation was observed at 16 degrees C. Our results suggest that female G. holbrooki are able to play a greater role in determining the outcome of sexual coercive mating interactions than previously thought. (c) 2006 The Association for the Shidy of Animal Behavioor. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.