Wages and prices in early Catalan industrialisation

Catalonia was the only Mediterranean region among the early followers of the British Industrial Revolution in the second third of the nineteenth century. The roots of this industrialisation process can be traced back to the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries when the Catalan economy became successfully integrated in international trade and the region enjoyed an intensification of its agrarian and proto-industrial activities. These capitalist developments were subsequently reinforced by a successful printed calico manufacturing business concentrated in the city of Barcelona. Although the factory system was largely adopted by the cotton industry in the 1840s, the diffusion of the spinning jenny had occurred earlier in the 1790s. In this paper, in line with Allen (2009a, 2009b), we explore whether relative factor prices played a role in the widespread adoption of the spinning jenny in Catalonia.

A global view of cross-border migration

This paper evaluates the global welfare impact of observed levels of migration using a quantitativemulti-sector model of the world economy calibrated to aggregate and firm-level data.Our framework features cross-country labor productivity differences, international trade, remittances,and a heterogeneous workforce. We compare welfare under the observed levels ofmigration to a no-migration counterfactual. In the long run, natives in countries that receiveda lot of migration -such as Canada or Australia- are better o due to greater product varietyavailable in consumption and as intermediate inputs. In the short run the impact of migrationon average welfare in these countries is close to zero, while the skilled and unskilled nativestend to experience welfare changes of opposite signs. The remaining natives in countries withlarge emigration flows -such as Jamaica or El Salvador- are also better off due to migration,but for a different reason: remittances. The welfare impact of observed levels of migration issubstantial, at about 5 to 10% for the main receiving countries and about 10% in countries withlarge incoming remittances. Our results are robust to accounting for imperfect transferabilityof skills, selection into migration, and imperfect substitution between natives and immigrants.

A civil society response on the report of the UN High-Level Panel on system-wide coherence

Abordamos el Informe del Grupo de Alto Nivel sobre la Coherencia en todo el Sistema de las Naciones Unidas («Informe del Grupo») y el proceso de reforma de las Naciones Unidas del que forma parte como grupos de la sociedad civil que tienen una larga experiencia por lo que se refiere a propugnar reformas del sistema de las Naciones Unidas.

Kansainvälistymistukien vertailututkimus

Tutkimuksen tarkoituksenaoli selvittää kansainvälistymistukien käyttöä eri Euroopan maissa. Tarkempaan tutkimukseen otettiin Saksan kaikki osavaltiot ja Ruotsi. Samalla selvitettiin myös niitä kansainvälisen kaupan sääntöjä ja määräyksiä, joita asetetaan, jotta tuet eivät vääristä kilpailua. Tällä tavalla oli tarkoitus löytää uusia 'hyviä käytäntöjä, Suomen seuraavan EU-ohjelmakauden ohjelmien kehittämiseksi. Tutkimuksessa kävi ilmi, että eri maat ja alueet painottavat yritystensä viennin- tai kansainvälistymisen tukemista eri lailla. Joillain alueille ei ole juuri minkäänlaista tukiohjelmaa, kun taas varsinkin Saksassa tukiohjelmatovat laajoja. Yhteistä kaikille ohjelmille on, että tukipäätökset ovat usein pienempiä kuin Suomessa. Toisaalta Suomessakin päätöksien koot ovat yleensä huomattavasti pienempiä kuin olisi mahdollista lain perusteella tehdä. Kokonaisuutena Suomen järjestelmä toimii hyvin ja sen avulla voidaan nytkin saavuttaa hyviä tuloksia. Jatkossa on kuitenkin kiinnitettävä huomiota siihen, että kehitämme ohjelmia erityisesti pienimpien yritysten kansainvälistymistä varten.

Database Rights in Safe European Home: The Path to More Rigorous Protection of Information

1. Introduction "The one that has compiled ... a database, the collection, securing the validity or presentation of which has required an essential investment, has the sole right to control the content over the whole work or over either a qualitatively or quantitatively substantial part of the work both by means of reproduction and by making them available to the public", Finnish Copyright Act, section 49.1 These are the laconic words that implemented the much-awaited and hotly debated European Community Directive on the legal protection of databases,2 the EDD, into Finnish Copyright legislation in 1998. Now in the year 2005, after more than half a decade of the domestic implementation it is yet uncertain as to the proper meaning and construction of the convoluted qualitative criteria the current legislation employs as a prerequisite for the database protection both in Finland and within the European Union. Further, this opaque Pan-European instrument has the potential of bringing about a number of far-reaching economic and cultural ramifications, which have remained largely uncharted or unobserved. Thus the task of understanding this particular and currently peculiarly European new intellectual property regime is twofold: first, to understand the mechanics and functioning of the EDD and second, to realise the potential and risks inherent in the new legislation in economic, cultural and societal dimensions. 2. Subject-matter of the study: basic issues The first part of the task mentioned above is straightforward: questions such as what is meant by the key concepts triggering the functioning of the EDD such as presentation of independent information, what constitutes an essential investment in acquiring data and when the reproduction of a given database reaches either qualitatively or quantitatively the threshold of substantiality before the right-holder of a database can avail himself of the remedies provided by the statutory framework remain unclear and call for a careful analysis. As for second task, it is already obvious that the practical importance of the legal protection providedby the database right is in the rapid increase. The accelerating transformationof information into digital form is an existing fact, not merely a reflection of a shape of things to come in the future. To take a simple example, the digitisation of a map, traditionally in paper format and protected by copyright, can provide the consumer a markedly easier and faster access to the wanted material and the price can be, depending on the current state of the marketplace, cheaper than that of the traditional form or even free by means of public lending libraries providing access to the information online. This also renders it possible for authors and publishers to make available and sell their products to markedly larger, international markets while the production and distribution costs can be kept at minimum due to the new electronic production, marketing and distributionmechanisms to mention a few. The troublesome side is for authors and publishers the vastly enhanced potential for illegal copying by electronic means, producing numerous virtually identical copies at speed. The fear of illegal copying canlead to stark technical protection that in turn can dampen down the demand for information goods and services and furthermore, efficiently hamper the right of access to the materials available lawfully in electronic form and thus weaken the possibility of access to information, education and the cultural heritage of anation or nations, a condition precedent for a functioning democracy. 3. Particular issues in Digital Economy and Information Networks All what is said above applies a fortiori to the databases. As a result of the ubiquity of the Internet and the pending breakthrough of Mobile Internet, peer-to-peer Networks, Localand Wide Local Area Networks, a rapidly increasing amount of information not protected by traditional copyright, such as various lists, catalogues and tables,3previously protected partially by the old section 49 of the Finnish Copyright act are available free or for consideration in the Internet, and by the same token importantly, numerous databases are collected in order to enable the marketing, tendering and selling products and services in above mentioned networks. Databases and the information embedded therein constitutes a pivotal element in virtually any commercial operation including product and service development, scientific research and education. A poignant but not instantaneously an obvious example of this is a database consisting of physical coordinates of a certain selected group of customers for marketing purposes through cellular phones, laptops and several handheld or vehicle-based devices connected online. These practical needs call for answer to a plethora of questions already outlined above: Has thecollection and securing the validity of this information required an essential input? What qualifies as a quantitatively or qualitatively significant investment? According to the Directive, the database comprises works, information and other independent materials, which are arranged in systematic or methodical way andare individually accessible by electronic or other means. Under what circumstances then, are the materials regarded as arranged in systematic or methodical way? Only when the protected elements of a database are established, the question concerning the scope of protection becomes acute. In digital context, the traditional notions of reproduction and making available to the public of digital materials seem to fit ill or lead into interpretations that are at variance with analogous domain as regards the lawful and illegal uses of information. This may well interfere with or rework the way in which the commercial and other operators have to establish themselves and function in the existing value networks of information products and services. 4. International sphere After the expiry of the implementation period for the European Community Directive on legal protection of databases, the goals of the Directive must have been consolidated into the domestic legislations of the current twenty-five Member States within the European Union. On one hand, these fundamental questions readily imply that the problemsrelated to correct construction of the Directive underlying the domestic legislation transpire the national boundaries. On the other hand, the disputes arisingon account of the implementation and interpretation of the Directive on the European level attract significance domestically. Consequently, the guidelines on correct interpretation of the Directive importing the practical, business-oriented solutions may well have application on European level. This underlines the exigency for a thorough analysis on the implications of the meaning and potential scope of Database protection in Finland and the European Union. This position hasto be contrasted with the larger, international sphere, which in early 2005 does differ markedly from European Union stance, directly having a negative effect on international trade particularly in digital content. A particular case in point is the USA, a database producer primus inter pares, not at least yet having aSui Generis database regime or its kin, while both the political and academic discourse on the matter abounds. 5. The objectives of the study The above mentioned background with its several open issues calls for the detailed study of thefollowing questions: -What is a database-at-law and when is a database protected by intellectual property rights, particularly by the European database regime?What is the international situation? -How is a database protected and what is its relation with other intellectual property regimes, particularly in the Digital context? -The opportunities and threats provided by current protection to creators, users and the society as a whole, including the commercial and cultural implications? -The difficult question on relation of the Database protection and protection of factual information as such. 6. Dsiposition The Study, in purporting to analyse and cast light on the questions above, is divided into three mainparts. The first part has the purpose of introducing the political and rationalbackground and subsequent legislative evolution path of the European database protection, reflected against the international backdrop on the issue. An introduction to databases, originally a vehicle of modern computing and information andcommunication technology, is also incorporated. The second part sets out the chosen and existing two-tier model of the database protection, reviewing both itscopyright and Sui Generis right facets in detail together with the emergent application of the machinery in real-life societal and particularly commercial context. Furthermore, a general outline of copyright, relevant in context of copyright databases is provided. For purposes of further comparison, a chapter on the precursor of Sui Generi, database right, the Nordic catalogue rule also ensues. The third and final part analyses the positive and negative impact of the database protection system and attempts to scrutinize the implications further in the future with some caveats and tentative recommendations, in particular as regards the convoluted issue concerning the IPR protection of information per se, a new tenet in the domain of copyright and related rights.

Food traditions and landscape histories of the Indian Ocean World : theoretical and methodological reflections

Environmental histories of plant exchanges have largely centred on their eco- nomic importance in international trade and on their ecological and social impacts in the places where they were introduced. Yet few studies have at- tempted to examine how plants brought from elsewhere become incorporated over time into the regional cultures of material life and agricultural landscapes. This essay considers the theoretical and methodological problems in inves- tigating the environmental history, diversity and distribution of food plants transferred across the Indian Ocean over several millennia. It brings together concepts of creolisation, syncretism, and hybridity to outline a framework for understanding how biotic exchanges and diffusions have been translated into regional landscape histories through food traditions, ritual practices and articu- lation of cultural identity. We use the banana plant - which underwent early domestication across New Guinea, South-east Asia and peninsular India and reached East Africa roughly two thousand years ago - as an example for il- lustrating the diverse patterns of incorporation into the cultural symbolism, material life and regional landscapes of the Indian Ocean World. We show that this cultural evolutionary approach allows new historical insights to emerge and enriches ongoing debates regarding the antiquity of the plant's diffusion from South-east Asia to Africa.

Investigation of business models of free zones and possible implications in South East Finland

Tutkielma tarkastelee vapaa alue konseptia osana yritysten kansainvälistä toimitusketjua. Tarkoituksena on löytää keinoja, millä tavoin vapaa alueen houkuttelevuutta voidaan lisätä yritysten näkökulmasta ja millaista liiketoimintaa yritysten on vapaa alueella mahdollista harjoittaa. Tutkielmassa etsitään tekijöitä, jotka vaikuttavat vapaa alueen menestykseen ja jotka voisivat olla sovellettavissa Kaakkois-Suomen ja Venäjän raja-alueelle ottaen huomioon vallitsevat olosuhteet ja lainsäädäntö rajoittavina tekijöinä. Menestystekijöitä ja liiketoimintamalleja haetaan tutkimalla ja analysoimalla lyhyesti muutamia olemassa olevia ja toimivia vapaa alueita. EU tullilain harmonisointi ja kansainvälisen kaupan vapautuminen vähentää vapaa alueen perinteistä merkitystä tullivapaana alueena. Sen sijaan vapaa alueet toimivat yhä enenevissä määrin logistisina keskuksina kansainvälisessä kaupassa ja tarjoavat palveluita, joiden avulla yritykset voivat parantaa logistista kilpailukykyään. Verkostoituminen, satelliitti-ratkaisut ja yhteistoiminta ovat keinoja, millä Kaakkois-Suomen alueen eri logistiikkapalvelujen tarjoajat voivat parantaa suorituskykyään ja joustavuutta kansainvälisessä toimitusketjussa.

Las exportaciones de España a Cuba (1891-1913): pervivencias históricas en la demanda cubana de productos españoles

This article analyzes the structure of Spanish trade with Cuba during the period leading up to and immediately after Cuban independence in 1898. Although in overall terms, the loss of the colony meant the disappearance of major bilateral trade links, an analysis of certain groups shows that Spanish exports to Cuba of some of the latter were maintained or actually increased. The hypothesis for explaining this anomalous behavior is based on the presence of product differentiation strategies whose success is linked to the preference for Spanish goods of a certain sector of Cuban demand.

Design for Customer Needs: Utilization of Quality Function Deployment in Product Development

Kansainvälisen kaupan kiristyessä yrityksien kyky täyttää asiakasketjunsa lailliset, sosiaaliset ja toiminnalliset asiakastarpeet tulee punnituksi. Globaalisuuden lisääntyessä asiakasketju voi sisältää toimintoja samanaikaisesti yli sadassa maassa. Jotta asiakasketjun tarpeet voidaan sisällyttää tuotteeseen tehokkaasti yhä useammat yritykset ovat siirtyneet käyttämään Quality Function Deployment nimistä projektijohto- ja laatutyökalua. Quality Function Deployment työkalu auttaa yritystä muuntamaan sisäisten ja ulkoisten asiakkaittensa tarpeet, tuotefunktioiksi ja tuotespesifikaatioiksi. Näin tehdessä voidaan uuden tuotteen kehitysaikaa ja hintaa alentaa merkittävästi suunnittelmalla tuote alunalkaen paremmin. QFD:tä on käytetty useissa yrityksissä Aasiassa, Pohjois-Amerikassa ja Euroopassa, sen kehittämisen jälkeen Japanissa 1960 luvulla. Tämä diplomityö antaa teoreettisen ja käytännön kuvauksen siitä miten QFD:tä kannatta käyttää ja mitä sen avulla voidaan saavuttaa vastaten kysymykseen "miten minä, ja yritykseni hyötyy jos käytän QFD:tä".

Environmental Structural Decomposition Analysis of Italian Emissions, 1995-2005

[spa] El estudio analiza la evolución de los gases de efecto invernadero (GEI) y las emisiones de acidificación para Italia durante el periodo 1995-2005. Los datos muestran que mientras las emisiones que contribuyen a la acidificación han disminuido constantemente, las emisiones de GEI han aumentado debido al aumento de dióxido de carbono. El objetivo de este estudio es poner de relieve cómo diferentes factores económicos, en particular el crecimiento económico, el desarrollo de una tecnología menos contaminante y la estructura del consumo, han impulsado la evolución de las emisiones. La metodología propuesta es un análisis de descomposición estructural (ADE), método que permite descomponer los cambios de la variable de interés entre las diferentes fuerzas y revelar la importancia de cada factor. Por otra parte, este estudio considera la importancia del comercio internacional e intenta incluir el “problema de la responsabilidad”. Es decir, a través de las relaciones comerciales internacionales, un país podría estar exportando procesos de producción contaminantes sin una reducción real de la contaminación implícita en su patrón de consumo. Con este fin, siguiendo primero un enfoque basado en la “responsabilidad del productor”, el ADE se aplica a las emisiones causadas por la producción nacional. Sucesivamente, el análisis se mueve hacia un enfoque basado en la “responsabilidad del consumidor" y la descomposición se aplica a las emisiones relacionadas con la producción nacional o la producción extranjera que satisface la demanda interna. De esta manera, el ejercicio permite una primera comprobación de la importancia del comercio internacional y pone de relieve algunos resultados a nivel global y a nivel sectorial.

Environmental Structural Decomposition Analysis of Italian Emissions, 1995-2005

[spa] El estudio analiza la evolución de los gases de efecto invernadero (GEI) y las emisiones de acidificación para Italia durante el periodo 1995-2005. Los datos muestran que mientras las emisiones que contribuyen a la acidificación han disminuido constantemente, las emisiones de GEI han aumentado debido al aumento de dióxido de carbono. El objetivo de este estudio es poner de relieve cómo diferentes factores económicos, en particular el crecimiento económico, el desarrollo de una tecnología menos contaminante y la estructura del consumo, han impulsado la evolución de las emisiones. La metodología propuesta es un análisis de descomposición estructural (ADE), método que permite descomponer los cambios de la variable de interés entre las diferentes fuerzas y revelar la importancia de cada factor. Por otra parte, este estudio considera la importancia del comercio internacional e intenta incluir el “problema de la responsabilidad”. Es decir, a través de las relaciones comerciales internacionales, un país podría estar exportando procesos de producción contaminantes sin una reducción real de la contaminación implícita en su patrón de consumo. Con este fin, siguiendo primero un enfoque basado en la “responsabilidad del productor”, el ADE se aplica a las emisiones causadas por la producción nacional. Sucesivamente, el análisis se mueve hacia un enfoque basado en la “responsabilidad del consumidor" y la descomposición se aplica a las emisiones relacionadas con la producción nacional o la producción extranjera que satisface la demanda interna. De esta manera, el ejercicio permite una primera comprobación de la importancia del comercio internacional y pone de relieve algunos resultados a nivel global y a nivel sectorial.

Integraation vaikutus Euroopan unionin jäsenmaiden ulkomaankauppavirtoihin

Työn tavoitteena on selvittää Euroopan unionin integraation vaikutusta jäsenmaiden ulkomaankauppaan vuosien 1995 ja 2001 välillä. Pääpaino on unionin sisäkaupan tutkimuksessa, Euroopan unionin ulkopuolisiin maihin suuntautuvan kaupan tarkastelussa tutkitaan kauppaa muiden teollistuneiden maiden ja kehitysmaiden kanssa. Työ on jakautunut teoreettiseen osaan ja empiiriseen osaan. Teoreettisessa osassa esitellään ulkomaankaupan taloustieteellinen perusta sekä kauppapolitiikan vaikutus kaupankäyntiin. Empiirisessä osassa tutkitaan tilastollisin menetelmin Euroopan unionin jäsenmaiden ulkomaankauppavirtoja. Johtopäätöksissä empiirisiä tuloksia verrataan muodostettuihin hypoteeseihin. Tutkimustulosten perusteella Euroopan unionin integraatiolla ei näytä olevan suurta vaikutusta unionin sisäkauppaan. Muun maailman kaupassa kehitys on ollut huomattavasti suurempaa. Parhaiten unionin sisäkauppaa selittää gravitaatiomalli eli kauppa riippuu voimakkaasti maiden taloudellisista vetovoimista ja niiden maantieteellisestä ja kulttuurillisesta etäisyydestä. Myös ydin-periferiamallin merkitys näyttää kasvaneen. Ulkokaupassa kauppapolitiikan rajoittava vaikutus on vähentynyt erityisesti kehitysmaiden kanssa käydyssä kaupassa.

Välimiesmenettely, yrityksen vaihtoehtoinen riidanratkaisumenetelmä

Tämän tutkielman tavoitteena on tutkia yrityksen näkökulmasta niin kansallista kuin kansainvälistä ad hoc välimiesmenettelyä, välimiesmenettelylain ja YK:n kansainvälisen kauppaoikeuden toimikunnan UNCITRAL:in sääntöjen pohjalta. Tutkielmassa käsitellään välimiesmenettelyn käynnistymisen edellytyksiä ja itse menettelyä välimiesoikeudessa sekä ulkomaisen välitystuomion tunnustamista ja täytäntöönpanoa Suomessa. Tutkimuksessa käytettävä tutkimusmetodologia on käsiteanalyyttinen. Välimiesmenettely on lisännyt suosiotaan vaihtoehtoisena riidanratkaisumenetelmänä ja sitä käytetään varsinkin kaupan, teollisuuden ja rakennustoiminnan piirissä. Välimiesmenettelyn merkitys on suuri kansainvälisen kaupan alalla ja se on vakiinnuttanut asemansa yritysten välisten riitojen ratkaisukeinona sen tuomien etuuksien, kuten joustavuuden, nopeuden ja kansainvälisyyden johdosta.

A Reappraisal of the Allocation Puzzle through the Portfolio Approach

Paradoxically, high-growth, high-investment developing countries tend to experience capital outflows. This paper shows that this allocation puzzle can be explained simply by introducing uninsurable idiosyncratic investment risk in the neoclassical growth model with international trade in bonds, and by taking into account not only TFP catch-up, but also the capital wedge, that is, the distortions on the return to capital. The model fits the two following facts, documented on a sample of 67 countries between 1980 and 2003: (i) TFP growth is positively correlated with capital outflows in a sample including creditor countries; (ii) the long-run level of capital per efficient unit of labor is positively correlated with capital outflows. Consistently, we show that the capital flows predicted by the model are positively correlated with the actual ones in this sample once the capital wedge is accounted for. The fact that Asia dominates global imbalances can be explained by its relatively low capital wedge.

Market Orientation in Rapidly Internationalizing Small Companies — Evidence from the Software Industry

For more than a decade, researchers have been aware of the increased pace of small-firm internationalization and the greater effect of these rapidly growing small businesses on the wealth, international trade, and job-creation opportunities of countries. Due to the small size of the home market, Finnish companies have been generally considered highly interested in internationalization. One particular domain in which rapid internationalization has been considered feasible is the global software business, with its knowledge-intensive nature and high growth potential. However, over time the failure rate of small entrepreneurial firms has remained especially high in high-technology markets. One of the reasons for this seems to lie in the fact that these companies are often formed by people with a strong technological background but limited competences in other areas. Further, research on the marketing capabilities of rapidly internationalizing high-tech firms has been scarce thus far. In addition, while there is much research on the first years of operations of rapidly internationalizing companies, it is not well known what becomes of them later on. Therefore, there is a need for more investigation into the managerial mindset, competences and decision-making in these small companies, especially from the perspective of how they acquire and exploit market knowledge, and enhance their networking capabilities in order to promote international expansion. The present study focuses on market orientation in small software firms that internationalize their operations rapidly in global software markets. It builds on qualitative data to illustrate how these companies develop their market-oriented product-market strategies during the process of increasing international commitment. It also shows how they manage their network relationships in order to be able to offer better customer service and to thrive in the fierce global competition. The study was conducted in the empirical context of Finnish small software companies, and the main data consists of interviews with top managers in these businesses. The interviews were designed to cover a minimum period of five years of the company's international operations, thus offering a retrospective in-depth perspective on market orientation, internationalization and partnerships in the given context. One particular focus is on less successfully internationalized software companies, and the challenges they face when approaching international markets. This study makes a significant contribution to the literature on market orientation for several reasons. First, building on data from the software industry, it clarifies the existing theory in the context of rapid internationalization and network relationships. Secondly, it provides a good body of evidence on market orientation in both successfully and less successfully internationalized companies, and identifies the key related differences between the two company groups. Thirdly, it highlights the importance of inter-firm networks in the rapid internationalization of small software firms, providing companies with important market knowledge and, in some cases, management challenges. Fourthly, this investigation clarifies market orientation in the context of different software-product strategies, thus, combining the perspectives of market orientation in both manufacturing and services. In sum, the results of the study are significant for both small software firms and public-policy makers since they shed light on the market-oriented managerial mindset and the market-information gathering and sharing processes that are needed in successful rapid internationalization.