De la desintegración Espacial a la Conformación regional en la Sabana de Bogotá. Una Propuesta para el desarrollo de la Ciudad Región en el siglo XXI

El presente trabajo de investigación aborda el tema del desarrollo regional en torno a una gran metrópoli como Bogotá y la Sabana de Bogotá. El crecimiento, expansión y relación con los municipios vecinos. Su entorno territorial; es un tema de discusión que cada día adquiere más fuerza desde hace varias décadas. Bogotá y la Sabana de Bogotá, se consideran en la actualidad como un caso representativo del caótico modelo de expansión urbana y crecimiento demográfico, enfrentado al desarrollo urbano como paradigma de la desigualdad de la ciudad latinoamericana. Son muchos los procesos y conflictos de naturaleza Regional y metropolitana que atraviesa la capital colombiana. Sin embargo esta investigación abordada el tema desde la necesidad de gobernanza y coordinación para el desarrollo territorial consensuado y equilibrado de la Región. La sabana de Bogotá está conformada por ciudades dormitorio, ciudades industriales, turísticas, agropecuarias, etc., es atravesada por el Río Bogotá, y en su centro la gran metrópoli, Bogotá D.C. centro de trabajo muy importante a nivel nacional, su área de influencia más próxima llega hasta: Caqueza, Zipaquira, Facatativa, Soacha, Fusagasuga y Girardot. Principales polos de desarrollo en la sabana y el departamento. Cundinamarca está compuesto por 15 provincias y Bogotá. Conformando un sistema de redes urbanas con necesidades comunes y demanda servicios públicos, de transporte, aseo, movilidad, salud, educación, espacio público y calidad ambiental. La metodología de esta investigación consiste en el análisis de la región a partir de la articulación de planes de ordenamiento territorial en un área de estudio propuesta. Mediante entrevistas con profesionales, expertos, funcionarios y empleados públicos y teniendo en cuenta las posibilidades legales en Colombia para el desarrollo territorial regional, establecer la situación real en materia de desarrollo para el departamento de Cundinamarca, evidenciando las necesidades del territorio y su desarrollo de una forma más compleja, valorando las sinergias y necesidades sociales, ambientales y económicas propias del crecimiento urbano, para proponer una serie de directrices que estructuren un desarrollo regional equilibrado en Bogotá y Cundinamarca. El análisis de los modelos del caso contribuye a fortalecer iniciativas para el desarrollo Regional de la Sabana de Bogotá como territorio sostenible: ambiental, económico y socialmente. En un sistema de redes que interconecte a Bogotá, con Cundinamarca, Colombia y el resto del mundo. Cundinamarca como región debe fijar estrategias y articular políticas en función de un modelo de desarrollo urbano regional para el departamento y la Sabana de Bogotá. Directrices departamentales básicas y fundamentales para el desarrollo territorial equilibrado que promueva ciudades sostenibles, compactas y con Calidad de vida para todos sus habitantes. ABSTRACT: This research addresses the issue of regional development around a big metropolis like Bogotá and Sabana de Bogota. The growth, expansion and relations with neighboring municipalities. Your local environment; It is an issue that becomes stronger every day for decades. Bogotá and Sabana de Bogotá, are considered today as a representative case of the chaotic model of urban expansion and population growth, urban development faced as a paradigm of inequality in Latin American city. Many processes and conflicts of Regional and metropolitan nature that crosses the Colombian capital. However this research addressed the issue from the need for governance and coordination for consensual and balanced territorial development of the region. The savannah of Bogota consists of bedroom communities, industrial cities, tourism, agriculture, etc., is crossed by the Bogota River, and at its center the great metropolis, Bogota DC center very important work at the national level, the area closest influence reaches: Caqueza, Zipaquira, Facatativa, Soacha, Fusagasuga and Girardot. Main centers of development in the savannah and the department. Cundinamarca is composed of 15 provinces and Bogota. Forming a system of urban networks with common needs and demand utilities, transportation, grooming, mobility, health, education, public space and environmental quality. The methodology of this research is the analysis of the region from the joint land use plans in the proposed study area. Through interviews with professionals, experts, public officials and employees and taking into account the legal possibilities in Colombia for regional territorial development, establish the real situation in development for the department of Cundinamarca, showing the region's needs and development of a more complex form, assessing synergies and own social, environmental and economic needs of urban growth, to propose a set of guidelines to structure a balanced regional development in Bogota and Cundinamarca. The analysis of case models helps to strengthen initiatives for regional development of the Sabana de Bogota and sustainable region: environmentally, economically and socially. In a network system that interconnects to Bogotá with Cundinamarca, Colombia and elsewhere. Cundinamarca region should set as joint strategies and policies based on a model of regional urban development for the department and the Sabana de Bogota. Basic and fundamental to balanced territorial development that fosters sustainable, compact and quality of life for all its inhabitants cities departmental guidelines.

Caracterización de la ventilación en la edificación residencial existente. Conciliación entre calidad del aire interior y eficiencia en la rehabilitación energética

La edificación residencial existente en España y en Europa se encuentra abocada a una rehabilitación profunda para cumplir los objetivos marcados en la estrategia europea para el año 2050. Estos, para el sector de la edificación, se proponen una reducción del 90% de emisiones de gases de efecto invernadero (GEI) respecto a niveles del año 1990. Este plan a largo plazo establece hitos intermedios de control, con objetivos parciales para el año 2020 y 2030. El objetivo último es aprovechar el potencial de reducción de demanda energética del sector de la edificación, del cual la edificación residencial supone el 85% en España. Dentro de estos requerimientos, de reducción de demanda energética en la edificación, la ventilación en la edificación residencial se convierte en uno de los retos a resolver por su vinculación directa a la salud y el confort de los ocupantes de la misma, y al mismo tiempo su relación proporcional con la demanda energética que presenta el edificio asociada al acondicionamiento térmico. Gran parte de las pérdidas térmicas de la edificación residencial se producen por el aire de renovación y la infiltración de aire a través de la envolvente. La directiva europea de eficiencia energética de la edificación (EPBD), que establece las directrices necesarias para alcanzar los objetivos de este sector en cuanto a emisiones de CO2 y gases de efecto invernadero (GEI), contempla la ventilación con aire limpio como un requisito fundamental a tener en cuenta de cara a las nuevas construcciones y a la rehabilitación energética de los edificios existentes. El síndrome del edificio enfermo, un conjunto de molestias y síntomas asociados a la baja calidad del aire de edificios no residenciales que surgió a raíz de la crisis del petróleo de 1973, tuvo su origen en una ventilación deficiente y una renovación del aire interior insuficiente de estos edificios, producto del intento de ahorro en la factura energética. Teniendo en cuenta que, de media, pasamos un 58% de nuestro tiempo en las viviendas, es fundamental cuidar la calidad del aire interior y no empeorarla aplicando medidas de “eficiencia energética” con efectos no esperados. Para conseguir esto es fundamental conocer en profundidad cómo se produce la ventilación en la edificación en bloque en España en sus aspectos de calidad del aire interior y demanda energética asociada a la ventilación. El objetivo de esta tesis es establecer una metodología de caracterización y de optimización de las necesidades de ventilación para los espacios residenciales existentes en España que aúne el doble objetivo de garantizar la calidad ambiental y reducir la demanda energética de los mismos. La caracterización del parque edificatorio residencial español en cuanto a ventilación es concluyente: La vivienda en España se distribuye principalmente en tres periodos en los que se encuentran más del 80% del total de las viviendas construidas. El periodo anterior a las normas básicas de la edificación (NBE), de 1960 a 1980, el periodo desde 1980 al año 2005, con el mayor número total de viviendas construidas, guiado por la NTE ISV 75, y el periodo correspondiente a la edificación construida a partir del Código Técnico de la Edificación, en 2006, cuyo documento básico de condiciones de salubridad (DB HS3) es la primera norma de obligado cumplimiento en diseño y dimensionamiento de ventilación residencial en España. La selección de un modelo de bloque de viviendas de referencia, un valor medio y representativo, seleccionado de entre estos periodos, pero con cualidades que se extienden más allá de uno de ellos, nos permite realizar un intensivo análisis comparativo de las condiciones de calidad de aire interior y la demanda energética del mismo, aplicando las distintas configuraciones que presenta la ventilación en viviendas dependiendo del escenario o época constructiva (o normativa) en que esta fuera construida. Este análisis se lleva a cabo apoyándose en un doble enfoque: el modelado numérico de simulaciones y el análisis de datos experimentales, para comprobar y afinar los modelos y observar la situación real de las viviendas en estos dos aspectos. Gracias a las conclusiones del análisis previo, se define una estrategia de optimización de la ventilación basada fundamentalmente en dos medidas: 1) La introducción de un sistema de extracción mecánica y recuperación de calor que permita reducir la demanda energética debida a la renovación del aire y a la vez diluir los contaminantes interiores más eficazmente para mejorar, de esta forma, la calidad del ambiente interior. 2) La racionalización del horario de utilización de estos sistemas, no malgastando la energía en periodos de no ocupación, permitiendo una leve ventilación de fondo, debida a la infiltración, que no incida en pérdidas energéticas cuantiosas. A esta optimización, además de aplicar la metodología de análisis previo, en cuanto a demanda energética y calidad del aire, se aplica una valoración económica integradora y comparativa basada en el reglamento delegado EU244/2012 de coste óptimo (Cost Optimal Methodology). Los resultados principales de esta tesis son: • Un diagnóstico de la calidad del aire interior de la edificación residencial en España y su demanda energética asociada, imprescindible para lograr una rehabilitación energética profunda garantizando la calidad del aire interior. • Un indicador de la relación directa entre calidad de aire y demanda energética, para evaluar la adecuación de los sistemas de ventilación, respecto de las nuevas normativas de eficiencia energética y ventilación. • Una estrategia de optimización, que ofrece una alternativa de intervención, y la aplicación de un método de valoración que permite evaluar la amortización comparada de la instalación de los sistemas. ABSTRACT The housing building stock already built in Spain and Europe faces a deep renovation in the present and near future to accomplish with the objectives agreed in the European strategy for 2050. These objectives, for the building sector, are set in a 90% of Green House Gases (GHG) reduction compared to levels in 1990. This long‐term plan has set milestones to control the correct advance of achievement in 2020 and 2030. The main objective is to take advantage of the great potential to reduce energy demand from the building sector, in which housing represents 85% share in Spain. Among this reduction on building energy demand requirements, ventilation of dwellings becomes one of the challenges to solve as it’s directly connected to the indoor air quality (IAQ) and comfort conditions for the users, as well as proportional to the building energy demand on thermal conditioning. A big share of thermal losses in housing is caused by air renovation and infiltration through the envelope leaks. The European Directive on Building energy performance (EPBD), establishes the roots needed to reach the building sector objectives in terms of CO2 and GHG emissions. This directive sets the ventilation and renovation with clean air of the new and existing buildings as a fundamental requirement. The Sick Building Syndrome (SBS), an aggregation of symptoms and annoys associated to low air quality in non residential buildings, appeared as common after the 1973 oil crisis. It is originated in defective ventilation systems and deficient air renovation rates, as a consequence of trying to lower the energy bill. Accounting that we spend 58% of our time in dwellings, it becomes crucial to look after the indoor air quality and focus in not worsening it by applying “energy efficient” measures, with not expected side effects. To do so, it is primary to research in deep how the ventilation takes place in the housing blocks in Spain, in the aspects related to IAQ and ventilation energy demand. This thesis main objective is to establish a characterization and optimization methodology regarding the ventilation needs for existing housing in Spain, considering the twofold objective of guaranteeing the air quality as reducing the energy demand. The characterization of the existing housing building stock in Spain regarding ventilation is conclusive. More of 80% of the housing stock is distributed in 3 main periods: before the implementation of the firsts regulations on building comfort conditions (Normas Básicas de la Edificación), from 1960 to 1980; the period after the first recommendations on ventilation (NTE ISV 75) for housing were set, around 1980 until 2005 and; the period corresponding to the housing built after the existing mandatory regulation in terms of indoor sanity conditions and ventilation (Spanish Building Code, DB HS3) was set, in 2006. Selecting a representative blueprint of a housing block in Spain, which has medium characteristics not just within the 3 periods mention, but which qualities extent beyond the 3 of them, allows the next step, analyzing. This comparative and intense analyzing phase is focused on the air indoor conditions and the related energy demand, applying different configurations to the ventilation systems according to the different constructive or regulation period in which the building is built. This analysis is also twofold: 1) Numerical modeling with computer simulations and 2) experimental data collection from existing housing in real conditions to check and refine the models to be tested. Thanks to the analyzing phase conclusions, an optimization strategy on the ventilation of the housing stock is set, based on two actions to take: 1) To introduce a mechanical exhaust and intake ventilation system with heat recovery that allows reducing energy demand, as improves the capacity of the system to dilute the pollutant load. This way, the environmental quality is improved. 2) To optimize the schedule of the system use, avoids waste of energy in no occupancy periods, relying ventilation during this time in a light infiltration ventilation, intended not to become large and not causing extra energy losses. Apart from applying the previous analyzing methodology to the optimization strategy, regarding energy demand and air quality, a ROI valorization is performed, based on the cost optimal methodology (delegated regulation EU244/2012). The main results from the thesis are: • To obtain a through diagnose regarding air quality and energy demand for the existing housing stock in Spain, unavoidable to reach a energy deep retrofitting scheme with no air quality worsening. • To obtain a marker to relate air quality and energy demand and evaluate adequateness of ventilation systems, for the new regulations to come. • To establish an optimization strategy to improve both air quality and energy demand, applying a compared valorization methodology to obtain the Return On Investment (ROI).

Multiphase Design and Control Techniques Applied to a Forward Micro-Inverter

En la última década la potencia instalada de energía solar fotovoltaica ha crecido una media de un 49% anual y se espera que alcance el 16%del consumo energético mundial en el año 2050. La mayor parte de estas instalaciones se corresponden con sistemas conectados a la red eléctrica y un amplio porcentaje de ellas son instalaciones domésticas o en edificios. En el mercado ya existen diferentes arquitecturas para este tipo de instalaciones, entre las que se encuentras los módulos AC. Un módulo AC consiste en un inversor, también conocido como micro-inversor, que se monta en la parte trasera de un panel o módulo fotovoltaico. Esta tecnología ofrece modularidad, redundancia y la extracción de la máxima potencia de cada panel solar de la instalación. Además, la expansión de esta tecnología posibilitará una reducción de costes asociados a las economías de escala y a la posibilidad de que el propio usuario pueda componer su propio sistema. Sin embargo, el micro-inversor debe ser capaz de proporcionar una ganancia de tensión adecuada para conectar el panel solar directamente a la red, mientras mantiene un rendimiento aceptable en un amplio rango de potencias. Asimismo, los estándares de conexión a red deber ser satisfechos y el tamaño y el tiempo de vida del micro-inversor son factores que han de tenerse siempre en cuenta. En esta tesis se propone un micro-inversor derivado de la topología “forward” controlado en el límite entre los modos de conducción continuo y discontinuo (BCM por sus siglas en inglés). El transformador de la topología propuesta mantiene la misma estructura que en el convertidor “forward” clásico y la utilización de interruptores bidireccionales en el secundario permite la conexión directa del inversor a la red. Asimismo el método de control elegido permite obtener factor de potencia cercano a la unidad con una implementación sencilla. En la tesis se presenta el principio de funcionamiento y los principales aspectos del diseño del micro-inversor propuesto. Con la idea de mantener una solución sencilla y de bajo coste, se ha seleccionado un controlador analógico que está originalmente pensado para controlar un corrector del factor de potencia en el mismo modo de conducción que el micro-inversor “forward”. La tesis presenta las principales modificaciones necesarias, con especial atención a la detección del cruce por cero de la corriente (ZCD por sus siglas en inglés) y la compatibilidad del controlador con la inclusión de un algoritmo de búsqueda del punto de máxima potencia (MPPT por sus siglas en inglés). Los resultados experimentales muestran las limitaciones de la implementación elegida e identifican al transformador como el principal contribuyente a las pérdidas del micro-inversor. El principal objetivo de esta tesis es contribuir a la aplicación de técnicas de control y diseño de sistemas multifase en micro-inversores fotovoltaicos. En esta tesis se van a considerar dos configuraciones multifase diferentes aplicadas al micro-inversor “forward” propuesto. La primera consiste en una variación con conexión paralelo-serie que permite la utilización de transformadores con una relación de vueltas baja, y por tanto bien acoplados, para conseguir una ganancia de tensión adecuada con un mejor rendimiento. Esta configuración emplea el mismo control BCM cuando la potencia extraída del panel solar es máxima. Este método de control implica que la frecuencia de conmutación se incrementa considerablemente cuando la potencia decrece, lo que compromete el rendimiento. Por lo tanto y con la intención de mantener unos bueno niveles de rendimiento ponderado, el micro-inversor funciona en modo de conducción discontinuo (DCM, por sus siglas en inglés) cuando la potencia extraía del panel solar es menor que la máxima. La segunda configuración multifase considerada en esta tesis es la aplicación de la técnica de paralelo con entrelazado. Además se han considerado dos técnicas diferentes para decidir el número de fases activas: dependiendo de la potencia continua extraída del panel solar y dependiendo de la potencia instantánea demandada por el micro-inversor. La aplicación de estas técnicas es interesante en los sistemas fotovoltaicos conectados a la red eléctrica por la posibilidad que brindan de obtener un rendimiento prácticamente plano en un amplio rango de potencia. Las configuraciones con entrelazado se controlan en DCM para evitar la necesidad de un control de corriente, lo que es importante cuando el número de fases es alto. Los núcleos adecuados para todas las configuraciones multifase consideradas se seleccionan usando el producto de áreas. Una vez seleccionados los núcleos se ha realizado un diseño detallado de cada uno de los transformadores. Con la información obtenida de los diseños y los resultados de simulación, se puede analizar el impacto que el número de transformadores utilizados tiene en el tamaño y el rendimiento de las distintas configuraciones. Los resultados de este análisis, presentado en esta tesis, se utilizan posteriormente para comparar las distintas configuraciones. Muchas otras topologías se han presentado en la literatura para abordar los diferentes aspectos a considerar en los micro-inversores, que han sido presentados anteriormente. La mayoría de estas topologías utilizan un transformador de alta frecuencia para solventar el salto de tensión y evitar problemas de seguridad y de puesta a tierra. En cualquier caso, es interesante evaluar si topologías sin aislamiento galvánico son aptas para su utilización como micro-inversores. En esta tesis se presenta una revisión de inversores con capacidad de elevar tensión, que se comparan bajo las mismas especificaciones. El objetivo es proporcionar la información necesaria para valorar si estas topologías son aplicables en los módulos AC. Las principales contribuciones de esta tesis son: • La aplicación del control BCM a un convertidor “forward” para obtener un micro-inversor de una etapa sencillo y de bajo coste. • La modificación de dicho micro-inversor con conexión paralelo-series de transformadores que permite reducir la corriente de los semiconductores y una ganancia de tensión adecuada con transformadores altamente acoplados. • La aplicación de técnicas de entrelazado y decisión de apagado de fases en la puesta en paralelo del micro-inversor “forward”. • El análisis y la comparación del efecto en el tamaño y el rendimiento del incremento del número de transformadores en las diferentes configuraciones multifase. • La eliminación de las medidas y los lazos de control de corriente en las topologías multifase con la utilización del modo de conducción discontinuo y un algoritmo MPPT sin necesidad de medida de corriente. • La recopilación y comparación bajo las mismas especificaciones de topologías inversoras con capacidad de elevar tensión, que pueden ser adecuadas para la utilización como micro-inversores. Esta tesis está estructurada en seis capítulos. El capítulo 1 presenta el marco en que se desarrolla la tesis así como el alcance de la misma. En el capítulo 2 se recopilan las topologías existentes de micro-invesores con aislamiento y aquellas sin aislamiento cuya implementación en un módulo AC es factible. Asimismo se presenta la comparación entre estas topologías bajo las mismas especificaciones. El capítulo 3 se centra en el micro-inversor “forward” que se propone originalmente en esta tesis. La aplicación de las técnicas multifase se aborda en los capítulos 4 y 5, en los que se presentan los análisis en función del número de transformadores. El capítulo está orientado a la propuesta paralelo-serie mientras que la configuración con entrelazado se analiza en el capítulo 5. Por último, en el capítulo 6 se presentan las contribuciones de esta tesis y los trabajos futuros. ABSTRACT In the last decade the photovoltaic (PV) installed power increased with an average growth of 49% per year and it is expected to cover the 16% of the global electricity consumption by 2050. Most of the installed PV power corresponds to grid-connected systems, with a significant percentage of residential installations. In these PV systems, the inverter is essential since it is the responsible of transferring into the grid the extracted power from the PV modules. Several architectures have been proposed for grid-connected residential PV systems, including the AC-module technology. An AC-module consists of an inverter, also known as micro-inverter, which is attached to a PV module. The AC-module technology offers modularity, redundancy and individual MPPT of each module. In addition, the expansion of this technology will enable the possibility of economies of scale of mass market and “plug and play” for the user, thus reducing the overall cost of the installation. However, the micro-inverter must be able to provide the required voltage boost to interface a low voltage PV module to the grid while keeping an acceptable efficiency in a wide power range. Furthermore, the quality standards must be satisfied and size and lifetime of the solutions must be always considered. In this thesis a single-stage forward micro-inverter with boundary mode operation is proposed to address the micro-inverter requirements. The transformer in the proposed topology remains as in the classic forward converter and bidirectional switches in the secondary side allows direct connection to the grid. In addition the selected control strategy allows high power factor current with a simple implementation. The operation of the topology is presented and the main design issues are introduced. With the intention to propose a simple and low-cost solution, an analog controller for a PFC operated in boundary mode is utilized. The main necessary modifications are discussed, with the focus on the zero current detection (ZCD) and the compatibility of the controller with a MPPT algorithm. The experimental results show the limitations of the selected analog controller implementation and the transformer is identified as a main losses contributor. The main objective of this thesis is to contribute in the application of control and design multiphase techniques to the PV micro-inverters. Two different multiphase configurations have been applied to the forward micro-inverter proposed in this thesis. The first one consists of a parallel-series connected variation which enables the use of low turns ratio, i.e. well coupled, transformers to achieve a proper voltage boost with an improved performance. This multiphase configuration implements BCM control at maximum load however. With this control method the switching frequency increases significantly for light load operation, thus jeopardizing the efficiency. Therefore, in order to keep acceptable weighted efficiency levels, DCM operation is selected for low power conditions. The second multiphase variation considered in this thesis is the interleaved configuration with two different phase shedding techniques: depending on the DC power extracted from the PV panel, and depending on the demanded instantaneous power. The application of interleaving techniques is interesting in PV grid-connected inverters for the possibility of flat efficiency behavior in a wide power range. The interleaved variations of the proposed forward micro-inverter are operated in DCM to avoid the current loop, which is important when the number of phases is large. The adequate transformer cores for all the multiphase configurations are selected according to the area product parameter and a detailed design of each required transformer is developed. With this information and simulation results, the impact in size and efficiency of the number of transformer used can be assessed. The considered multiphase topologies are compared in this thesis according to the results of the introduced analysis. Several other topological solutions have been proposed to solve the mentioned concerns in AC-module application. The most of these solutions use a high frequency transformer to boost the voltage and avoid grounding and safety issues. However, it is of interest to assess if the non-isolated topologies are suitable for AC-module application. In this thesis a review of transformerless step-up inverters is presented. The compiled topologies are compared using a set benchmark to provide the necessary information to assess whether non-isolated topologies are suitable for AC-module application. The main contributions of this thesis are: • The application of the boundary mode control with constant off-time to a forward converter, to obtain a simple and low-cost single-stage forward micro-inverter. • A modification of the forward micro-inverter with primary-parallel secondary-series connected transformers to reduce the current stress and improve the voltage gain with highly coupled transformers. •The application of the interleaved configuration with different phase shedding strategies to the proposed forward micro-inverter. • An analysis and comparison of the influence in size and efficiency of increasing the number of transformers in the parallel-series and interleaved multiphase configurations. • Elimination of the current loop and current measurements in the multiphase topologies by adopting DCM operation and a current sensorless MPPT. • A compilation and comparison with the same specifications of suitable non-isolated step-up inverters. This thesis is organized in six chapters. In Chapter 1 the background of single-phase PV-connected systems is discussed and the scope of the thesis is defined. Chapter 2 compiles the existing solutions for isolated micro-inverters and transformerless step-up inverters suitable for AC-module application. In addition, the most convenient non-isolated inverters are compared using a defined benchmark. Chapter 3 focuses on the originally proposed single-stage forward micro-inverter. The application of multiphase techniques is addressed in Chapter 4 and Chapter 5, and the impact in different parameters of increasing the number of phases is analyzed. In Chapter 4 an original primary-parallel secondary-series variation of the forward micro-inverter is presented, while Chapter 5 focuses on the application of the interleaved configuration. Finally, Chapter 6 discusses the contributions of the thesis and the future work.

Regulación y marcos de trabajo para la gestión de sistemas de Tecnologías de la Información

En la actualidad, a través de los sistemas de Tecnologías de la Información (TI) se ofrecen servicios muy diversos que tienen requisitos cada vez más específicos para garantizar su funcionamiento. Con el fin de cumplir dichas garantías, se han estandarizado diferentes normativas, así como marcos de trabajo, también llamadas recomendaciones o manuales de buenas prácticas, que permiten al proveedor de servicios verificar que se cumplen dichos requisitos y ofrecer tanto al cliente final como a la propia organización un servicio de calidad que permita generar valora todas las partes. Con la aplicación de dichas recomendaciones y normativas, las empresas y Administraciones Públicas garantizan que los servicios telemáticos que ofrecen, cumplen estándares de calidad permitiendo así ofrecer al usuario final una plataforma estable y adecuada al servicio prestado. Dichas normas y marcos hacen referencia tanto al servicio TI propiamente dicho como al propio sistema de gestión del servicio TI, de tal forma que, a través de una operación adecuada del sistema que gestiona el servicio, podemos hacer que dicho servicio esté continuamente mejorando. En concreto nos centramos en la norma más empleada, ISO 20000, y en el marco de trabajo o referencia de buenas prácticas, ITIL 2011, con el fin de dar una visión clara de los diferentes procesos, actividades y funciones que ambas definen para generar valor en la empresa a través de los sistemas de TI. Con el fin de ayudar a la comprensión tanto de ITIL como de ISO 20000, se ha desarrollado a modo de ejemplo la implementación tanto de ITIL inicialmente y luego ISO 20000 sobre de un servicio que ya está en funcionamiento definiendo para cada una de las cinco fases del ciclo de vida que, tanto en la norma como en el marco se utilizan, los procesos y funciones necesarias para su implementación, y su posterior revisión. ABSTRACT. Today, we’ve got a lot of different services thanks to Information Technologies (IT) service management: they have increasingly specific requirements to ensure a good operation on the service they support. In order to meet these requirements, it has been released different standardized regulations and frameworks, also called recommendations or good practice guides. They allow the service provider to verify that such requirements are met and offer both to the end customer and to the own organization that manage this system, a quality service that will generate value to both parts. In the end, with the implementation of these recommendations and regulations, companies and public authorities ensure that the telematics services offered meet the quality standards they seek, allowing the end user to offer a stable and appropriate service platform. So these standards and reference frames both implies on the IT service itself and on the IT service management, so that, through proper operation of the parts implied on the process that manages the service, we can offer a better service. In particular we focus on the most widely used standard, ISO 20000, and the reference framework or best practices, ITIL 2011, in order to give a clear overview of the different processes, activities and functions that define both to create value in the company through IT service management. To help the understanding of both ITIL and ISO 20000, it has been developed an example of an ITIL and then ISO 20000 implementation on a service that is already in operation defining for each of the five phases of the life cycle, both in the standard as used in the context, processes and functions necessary for its implementation, and later review.

Aspectos do macrozoneamento utilizando SIG enquanto instrumento de gestão ambiental: diagnósticos e cenários regionais no estudo de caso da região de Ribeirão Preto

Este trabalho apresenta o macrozoneamento como instrumento de gestão ambiental que visa compatibilizar, em bases permanentes, o desenvolvimento econômico de uma região à manutenção da qualidade ambiental. Neste contexto, o Sistema de Informações Geográficas se apresenta como ferramenta necessária à síntese da dinâmica econômica-ecológica, a fim de que as rápidas mudanças, inerentes ao modelo de desenvolvimento global, não inviabilizem um processo que deve contemplar a visão sistêmica do meio ambiente. No desenvolvimento desta pesquisa foi utilizado o software Idrisi para o processamento dos mapas da área de estudo, que constitui a base do banco de dados. Fundamentando-a, foram abordados os conceitos de gestão e planejamento ambiental e de sistema de informações geográficas, relacionando-os ao macrozoneamento e aos aspectos jurídicos observados no país e, particularmente, no Estado de São Paulo. Como resultado final, o banco de dados digitais e a abordagem do macrozoneamento da região de Ribeirão Preto, através da apresentação e análise de cenários de potenciais usos e conflitos, entre outros, deverão subsidiar a implementação de atividades e diagnósticos regionais. Além disto, o trabalho poderá contribuir para a consolidação e para o direcionamento da inserção do macrozoneamento no sistema de gestão ambiental.

Estudo da qualidade do mel de abelhas sem ferrão por análise por ativação neutrônica instrumental

O Brasil é um dos maiores produtores mundiais de mel, no qual sua produção é baseada principalmente na criação da espécie exótica Apis mellifera. A produção de mel da Apis mellifera é cerca de 10 vezes maior que das espécies de abelhas sem ferrão, contudo, o mel de abelhas nativas possui maior valor comercial. Embora pouco explorado, o mel de abelhas sem ferrão desperta interesse em indústrias de cosméticos e medicinas naturais. A sua produção se apresenta como uma ferramenta com grande potencial para agregar valor econômico aos ecossistemas brasileiros, em especial os florestais, de forma sustentável e com menor potencial de influências de contaminantes traços. A qualidade química do mel é um importante requisito comercial, principalmente o destinado à exportação. Como exemplo, a União Européia em 2006 decidiu suspender a importação do mel produzido no Brasil sob alegação de que o país não possuía equivalência ao bloco quanto as diretrizes para o controle de resíduos e qualidade do produto. Diante do potencial de produção comercial sustentável do mel de abelhas nativas brasileiras e a falta de conhecimento sobre possíveis resíduos encontrados em sua composição, em especial os elementos traços, como objetivo principal deste trabalho pretendeu-se caracterizar a composição de elementos químicos do mel de abelhas sem ferrão, comparar com o de Apis mellifera e verificar as possíveis variações causadas pelo ambiente. Este estudo investigou a composição química dos méis de abelhas sem ferrão de cinco estados brasileiros: Bahia, Minas Gerais, Rio Grande do Norte, Santa Catarina e São Paulo; compreendendo um total de 70 colméias de diferentes espécies: Melipona quadrifasciata, Melipona scutelaris, Melipona mandacaia, Melipona capixaba, Melipona rufiventris, Melipona compressipes, Melipona bicolor, Nannotrigona testaceicornis, Tetragona clavipes, Tetragonisca angustula e Scaptotrigona sp.. Pólen, a principal fonte de minerais para a colméia, e as próprias abelhas foram também coletadas para estudos de composição e correlação com os méis. A análise por ativação neutrônica instrumental permitiu a determinação de Br, Ca, Co, Cs, Fe, La, Na, Rb, Sc e Zn nos méis, Br, Ca, Co, Cs, Fe, K, La, Na, Rb, Sc, Se e Zn nas amostras de pólen e As, Br, Co, Cr, Cs, Fe, K, La, Na, Rb, Sb, Sc, Se e Zn em abelhas. Méis das abelhas da subtribo trigonina apresentaram maiores concentrações dos elementos alcalinos. Alta razão K/Na foram observadas nas amostras de mel e pólen. Pólen se apresentou como uma grande fonte de P e Se. Análises quimiométricas indicaram os méis e abelhas como bons indicadores de atividades antrópicas. Arsênio apareceu nas abelhas coletadas em áreas de maior atividade antrópica. Como resultado, este estudo tem demonstrado o potencial nutracêutico do mel e pólen meliponícola e o potencial das abelhas nativas como ferramentas de avaliação da qualidade ambiental. A proximidade a atividades antrópicas mostrou-se fator decisivo para concentrações mais elevadas de As mas abelhas

Sustainable Development and its Discontents

Sustainable development (or sustainability) is a decision-making framework for maintaining and achieving human well-being, both in the present and into the future. The framework requires both consideration and achievement of environmental protection, social justice and economic development. In that framework, environmental protection must be integrated into decisions about social and economic development, and social justice and economic viability must be integrated into decisions about environmental quality. First endorsed by the world’s nations in 1992, this framework is intended to provide an effective response to the twin global challenges of growing environmental degradation and widespread extreme poverty. Sustainability provides a framework for humans to live in harmony with nature, rather than at nature’s expense. It may therefore be one of the most important ideas to come out of the 20th century. In the last two decades, the framework has become a touchstone in nearly every economic sector and at every level of government, unleashing an extraordinary range of creativity in all of those realms. Sustainable development is having a significant effect on the practice of law and on the way in which laws are written and implemented. Understanding the framework is increasingly important for law makers and lawyers. As sustainable development (or sustainability) has grown in prominence, its critics have become more numerous and more vocal. Three major lines of criticism are that the term is “too boring” to command public attention, “too vague” to provide guidance, and “too late” to address the world’s problems. Critics suggest goals such as abundance, environmental integrity, and resilience. Beginning with the international agreements that shaped the concept of sustainable development, this Article provides a functional and historical analysis of the meaning of sustainable development. It then analyzes and responds to each of these criticisms in turn. While the critics, understood constructively, suggest ways of strengthening this framework, they do not provide a compelling alternative. The challenge for lawyers, law makers, and others is to use and improve this framework to make better decisions.

Grado de interiorización de los sistemas de gestión medioambiental: una revisión de la literatura

El objetivo de este trabajo es analizar las principales características de los trabajos sobre interiorización de las normas de gestión medioambiental que fueron identificados a partir de una búsqueda electrónica en las bases de datos Web of Science, Science Direct, ProQuest y Emerald. Estos trabajos muestran que las empresas pueden tener un mayor o menor compromiso con los requisitos de una norma de gestión medioambiental, lo que puede llevar a niveles heterogéneos de interiorización e implantación. Además, los resultados de estos trabajos muestran que una mayor interiorización conlleva un mejor rendimiento medioambiental.

Mixed Public-Private Enterprises in Europe: Economic Theory and an Empirical Analysis of Italian Water Utilities. Bruges European Economic Research (BEER) Papers 4/July 2006

Mixed enterprises, which are entities jointly owned by the public and private sector, are spreading all over Europe in local utilities. Well aware that in the vast majority of cases the preference of local authorities towards such governance structure is determined by practical reasons rather than by the ambition to implement new regulatory designs (an alternative to the typical “external” regulation), our purpose is to confer some scientific value to this phenomenon which has not been sufficiently investigated in the economic literature. This paper aims at proposing an economic analysis of mixed enterprises, especially of the specific configuration in which the public partner acts as controller and the private one (or “industrial” partner) as service provider. We suggest that the public service concession to mixed enterprises could embody, under certain conditions, a noteworthy substitute to the traditional public provision and the concession to totally private enterprises, as it can push regulated operators to outperform and limit the risk of private opportunism. The starting point of the entire analysis is that ownership allows the (public) owner to gather more information about the actual management of the firm, according to property rights theory. Following this stream of research, we conclude that under certain conditions mixed enterprises could significantly reduce asymmetric information between regulators and regulated firms by implementing a sort of “internal” regulation. With more information, in effect, the public authority (as owner/controller of the regulated firm, but also as member of the regulatory agency) can stimulate the private operator to be more efficient and can monitor it more effectively with respect to the fulfilment of contractual obligations (i.e., public service obligations, quality standards, etc.). Moreover, concerning the latter function, the board of directors of the mixed enterprise can be the suitable place where public and private representatives (respectively, welfare and profit maximisers) can meet to solve all disputes arising from incomplete contracts, without recourse to third parties. Finally, taking into account that a disproportionate public intervention in the “private” administration (or an ineffective protection of the general interest) would imply too many drawbacks, we draw some policy implications that make an equitable debate on the board of the firm feasible. Some empirical evidence is taken from the Italian water sector.

The EU Counter-Terrorism Policy Responses to the Attacks in Paris: Towards an EU Security and Liberty Agenda. CEPS Liberty and Security in Europe No. 81/February 2015

This paper examines the main EU-level initiatives that have been put forward in the weeks following the attacks in Paris in January 2015, which will be discussed in the informal European Council meeting of 12 February 2015. It argues that a majority of these proposals predated the Paris shootings and had until that point proved contentious as regards their efficacy, legitimacy and lawfulness. The paper finds that EU counterterrorism responses raise two fundamental challenges: A first challenge is posed to the freedom of movement, Schengen and EU citizenship. Priority is being given to the expanded use of large-scale surveillance and systematic monitoring of all travellers including EU citizens, which stands in contravention of Schengen and the free movement principle. A second challenge concerns EU democratic rule of law. Current pressures calling for the adoption of measures such as the EU Passenger Name Record challenge the scrutiny roles held by the European Parliament and the Court of Justice of the EU on counterterrorism measures in a post-Lisbon Treaty setting. The paper proposes that the EU adopts a new European Agenda on Security and Liberty based on an EU security (criminal justice-led) cooperation model that is firmly anchored in current EU legal principles and rule of law standards. This model would call for ‘less is more’ concerning the use, processing and retention of data by police and intelligence communities. Instead, it would pursue better and more accurate use of data meeting the quality standards of evidence in criminal judicial proceedings.

The Energy Performance of Buildings: Promises Still Unfulfilled. Egmont Paper No. 78, May 2015

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY All observers agree that energy efficiency must be the cornerstone of any serious EU energy strategy. In this general context, the EU building sector is critical. It represents about 40% of EU final energy consumption (residential houses, public/private offices, commercial buildings, etc.) and approximately 36% of EU CO2 emissions. This is massive. The EU has certainly not been inactive in this field. The Energy Performance in Buildings Directive 2002/91/EC (EPBD) was the first and the main instrument to address the problem of the energy performance of buildings. It has established numerous principles: a reliable methodology which enables the calculation and rating of the energy performance of buildings; minimum energy performance standards for new buildings and existing buildings under major renovation; energy performance certificates; regular inspection of heating and air-conditioning systems; and, finally, quality standards for inspections and energy performance certificates. They were strengthened in 2010 by the recast Directive 2010/31/EU. This directive also introduces a decisive concept for the development of the building sector: ‘nearly zeroenergy buildings’. In 2012, the new Energy Efficiency Directive 2012/27/EU dealt with other aspects. In the building sector, three of them are particularly important. They concern: (1) the establishment of long-term strategies for mobilizing investment in the renovation of the national building stocks; (2) the introduction of energy saving schemes for ‘designated’ energy companies with a view to reducing consumption among ‘final consumers’ by 1.5% annually; and (3), as an option, the setting up of an Energy Efficiency National Fund to support energy efficiency initiatives. This paper also briefly examines the different instruments put in place to disseminate information and consultation, and the EU funding for energy efficiency in buildings. Results, however, have remained limited until now. The improvement of the energy performance of buildings and the rhythm of renovation remain extremely weak. Member States’ unwillingness to timely and properly transpose and implement the Directives continues despite the high degree of flexibility permitted. The decentralized approach chosen for some specific aspects and the differentiation in the application of EPBD standards between Member States do not appear optimal either. Adequate financial schemes remain rare. The permanent deficit of qualified and trained personnel and the inertia of public authorities to make the public understand the stakes in this domain remain problematic. Hence the need to take new initiatives to reap the benefits that the building sector is meant to bring.

The EU and its Counter-Terrorism Policies after the Paris Attacks. Liberty and Security in Europe No. 84, 27 November 2015

This paper examines the EU’s counter-terrorism policies responding to the Paris attacks of 13 November 2015. It argues that these events call for a re-think of the current information-sharing and preventive-justice model guiding the EU’s counter-terrorism tools, along with security agencies such as Europol and Eurojust. Priority should be given to independently evaluating ‘what has worked’ and ‘what has not’ when it comes to police and criminal justice cooperation in the Union. Current EU counter-terrorism policies face two challenges: one is related to their efficiency and other concerns their legality. ‘More data’ without the necessary human resources, more effective cross-border operational cooperation and more trust between the law enforcement authorities of EU member states is not an efficient policy response. Large-scale surveillance and preventive justice techniques are also incompatible with the legal and judicial standards developed by the Court of Justice of the EU. The EU can bring further added value first, by boosting traditional policing and criminal justice cooperation to fight terrorism; second, by re-directing EU agencies’ competences towards more coordination and support in cross-border operational cooperation and joint investigations, subject to greater accountability checks (Europol and Eurojust +); and third, by improving the use of policy measures following a criminal justice-led cooperation model focused on improving cross-border joint investigations and the use of information that meets the quality standards of ‘evidence’ in criminal judicial proceedings. Any EU and national counter-terrorism policies must not undermine democratic rule of law, fundamental rights or the EU’s founding constitutional principles, such as the free movement of persons and the Schengen system. Otherwise, these policies will defeat their purpose by generating more insecurity, instability, mistrust and legal uncertainty for all.

Federal financial assistance for pollution prevention and control /

Cover title.

Hazardous material spills and responses for municipalities /

Mode of access: Internet.

Pesticides monitoring journal

Mode of access: Internet.