A Study on the Water Retention Characteristics of Soils and their Improvements

Soil moisture plays a cardinal role in sustaining eclological balance and agricultural development – virtually the very existence of life on earth. Because of the growing shortage of water resources, we have to use the available water most efficiently by proper management. Better utilization of rainfall or irrigation management depends largely on the water retention characteristics of the soil.Soil water retention is essential to life and it provides an ongoing supply of water to plants between periods of irrigation so as to allow their continued growth and survival.It is essential to maintain readily available water in the soil if crops are to sustain satisfactory growth. The plant growth may be retarded if the soil moisture is either deficient or excessive. The optimum moisture content is that moisture which leads to optimum growth of plant. When watering is done, the amount of water supplied should be such that the water content is equal to the field capacity that is the water remained in the saturated soil after gravitational drainage. Water will gradually be utilized consumptively by plants after the water application, and the soil moisture will start falling. When the water content in the soil reaches the value known as permanent wilting point (when the plant starts wilting) fresh dose of irrigation may be done so that water content is again raised to the field capacity of soil.Soil differ themselves in some or all the properties depending on the difference in the geotechnical and environmental factors. Soils serve as a reservoir of the nutrients and water required for crops.Study of soil and its water holding capacity is essential for the efficient utilization of irrigation water. Hence the identification of the geotechnical parameters which influence the water retention capacity, chemical properties which influence the nutrients and the method to improve these properties have vital importance in irrigation / agricultural engineering. An attempt in this direction has been made in this study by conducting the required tests on different types of soil samples collected from various locations in Trivandrum district Kerala, with and without admixtures like coir pith, coir pith compost and vermi compost. Evaluation of the results are presented and a design procedure has been proposed for a better irrigation scheduling and management.

Studies on lemongrass oil

The thesis deals with the different properties and characteristics of oil of lemon grass.. The oil of lemongrass (Cymbopogon flexuosus) is one of the most important essential oils. It will continue to be one of the "big ten" of our essential oils1. Lemongrass oil is obtained from certain species of grasses of the genus cymbopogon. The genus consists of about 80 species, 10 to 12 of which are known to occur in India. Lemongrass is a stoloniferous plant. The plant grows wild in many tropical andsemitropical parts of Asia, Africa and in parts of Central America and South America. For the extraction of the oil however only cultivated lemongrass is employed. The trade distinguishes two Principal types of lemongrass oil, viz. the East Indian Oil and West Indian Oil. There was much confusion, years ago, about the taxonomy of the plants which yield theEast Indian and West Indian types of lemongrass oil, however Stapf2 ended the long controversy of identifying the plant yielding the East Indian type oil as Cymbopogon flexuosus (D.C.) Stapf and the plant yielding the West Indian type oil as Cymbopogon citrates (D.C.) stapf. The 2 plants have_been named variously also Andropogon nardus var. Flexuosus Hack or A. citratus D.C. respectively

Propyl Gallate Synthesis Using Acidophilic Tannase and Simultaneous Production of Tannase and Gallic Acid by Marine Aspergillus awamori BTMFW032

Marine Aspergillus awamori BTMFW032, recently reported by us, produce acidophilic tannase as extracellular enzyme. Here, we report the application of this enzyme for synthesis of propyl gallate by direct transesterification of tannic acid and in tea cream solubilisation besides the simultaneous production of gallic acid along with tannase under submerged fermentation by this fungus. This acidophilic tannase enabled synthesis of propyl gallate by direct transesterification of tannic acid using propanol as organic reaction media under low water conditions. The identity of the product was confirmed with thin layer chromatography and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy. It was noted that 699 U/ml of enzyme could give 60% solubilisation of tea cream within 1 h. Enzyme production medium was optimized adopting Box–Behnken design for simultaneous synthesis of tannase and gallic acid. Process variables including tannic acid, sodium chloride, ferrous sulphate, dipotassium hydrogen phosphate, incubation period and agitation were recognized as the critical factors that influenced tannase and gallic acid production. The model obtained predicted 4,824.61 U/ml of tannase and 136.206 μg/ml gallic acid after 48 h of incubation, whereas optimized medium supported 5,085 U/ml tannase and 372.6 μg/ml of gallic acid production after 36 and 84 h of incubation, respectively, with a 15-fold increase in both enzyme and gallic acid production. Results indicated scope for utilization of this acidophilic tannase for transesterification of tannic acid into propyl gallate, tea cream solubilisation and simultaneous production of gallic acid along with tannase

Microbial use of organic substrates and maize growth, especially in saline and alkaline soils of Pakistani Punjab

This thesis consists of 4 main parts: (1) impact of growing maize on the decomposition of incorporated fresh alfalfa residues, (2) relationships between soil biological and other soil properties in saline and alkaline arable soils from the Pakistani Punjab, (3) decomposition of compost and plant residues in Pakistani soils along a gradient in salinity, and (4) interactions of compost and triple superphosphate on the growth of maize in a saline Pakistani soil. These 4 chapters are framed by a General Introduction and a Conclusions section. (1) In the first study, the effects of growing maize plants on the microbial decomposition of freshly chopped alfalfa residues was investigated in a 90-day pot experiment using a sandy arable soil. Assuming that the addition of alfalfa residues did not affect the decomposition of native soil organic matter, only 27% of the alfalfa residues were found as CO2. This suggests that a considerable part of alfalfa-C remained undecomposed in the soil. However, only 6% of the alfalfa residues could be recovered as plant remains in treatment with solely alfalfa residues. Based on d13C values, it was calculated that plant remains in treatment maize + alfalfa residues contained 14.7% alfalfa residues and 85.3% maize root remains. This means 60% more alfalfa-C was recovered in this treatment. (2) In the second study, the interactions between soil physical, soil chemical and soil biological properties were analysed in 30 Pakistani soils from alkaline and saline arable sites differing strongly in salinisation and in soil pH. The soil biological properties were differentiated into indices for microbial activity, microbial biomass, and community structure with the aim of assessing their potential as soil fertility indices. (3) In the third study, 3 organic amendments (compost, maize straw and pea straw) were added to 5 Pakistani soils from a gradient in salinity. Although salinity has depressive effects on microbial biomass C, biomass N, biomass P, and ergosterol, the clear gradient according to the soil salt concentration was not reflected by the soil microbial properties. The addition of the 3 organic amendments always increased the contents of the microbial indices analysed. The amendment-induced increase was especially strong for microbial biomass P and reflected the total P content of the added substrates. (4) The fourth study was greenhouse pot experiment with different combinations of compost and triple superphosphate amendments to investigate the interactions between plant growth, microbial biomass formation and compost decomposition in a strongly saline Pakistani arable soil in comparison to a non-saline German arable soil. The Pakistani soil had a 2 times lower content of ergosterol, a 4 times lower contents of microbial biomass C, biomass N and biomass P, but nearly a 20 times lower content of NaHCO3 extractable P. The addition of 1% compost always had positive effects on the microbial properties and also on the content of NaHCO3 extractable P. The addition of superphosphate induced a strong and similar absolute increase in microbial biomass P in both soils.

Salinity-induced changes in the microbial use of sugarcane filter cake added to soil

Five laboratory incubation experiments were carried out to assess the salinity-induced changes in the microbial use of sugarcane filter cake added to soil. The first laboratory experiment was carried out to prove the hypothesis that the lower content of fungal biomass in a saline soil reduces the decomposition of a complex organic substrate in comparison to a non-saline soil under acidic conditions. Three different rates (0.5, 1.0, and 2.0%) of sugarcane filter cake were added to both soils and incubated for 63 days at 30°C. In the saline control soil without amendment, cumulative CO2 production was 70% greater than in the corresponding non-saline control soil, but the formation of inorganic N did not differ between these two soils. However, nitrification was inhibited in the saline soil. The increase in cumulative CO2 production by adding filter cake was similar in both soils, corresponding to 29% of the filter cake C at all three addition rates. Also the increases in microbial biomass C and biomass N were linearly related to the amount of filter cake added, but this increase was slightly higher for both properties in the saline soil. In contrast to microbial biomass, the absolute increase in ergosterol content in the saline soil was on average only half that in the non-saline soil and it showed also strong temporal changes during the incubation: A strong initial increase after adding the filter cake was followed by a rapid decline. The addition of filter cake led to immobilisation of inorganic N in both soils. This immobilisation was not expected, because the total C-to-total N ratio of the filter cake was below 13 and the organic C-to-organic N ratio in the 0.5 M K2SO4 extract of this material was even lower at 9.2. The immobilisation was considerably higher in the saline soil than in the non-saline soil. The N immobilisation capacity of sugarcane filter cake should be considered when this material is applied to arable sites at high rations. The second incubation experiment was carried out to examine the N immobilizing effect of sugarcane filter cake (C/N ratio of 12.4) and to investigate whether mixing it with compost (C/N ratio of 10.5) has any synergistic effects on C and N mineralization after incorporation into the soil. Approximately 19% of the compost C added and 37% of the filter cake C were evolved as CO2, assuming that the amendments had no effects on the decomposition of soil organic C. However, only 28% of the added filter cake was lost according to the total C and d13C values. Filter cake and compost contained initially significant concentrations of inorganic N, which was nearly completely immobilized between day 7 and 14 of the incubation in most cases. After day 14, N re-mineralization occurred at an average rate of 0.73 µg N g-1 soil d-1 in most amendment treatments, paralleling the N mineralization rate of the non-amended control without significant difference. No significant net N mineralization from the amendment N occurred in any of the amendment treatments in comparison to the control. The addition of compost and filter cake resulted in a linear increase in microbial biomass C with increasing amounts of C added. This increase was not affected by differences in substrate quality, especially the three times larger content of K2SO4 extractable organic C in the sugarcane filter cake. In most amendment treatments, microbial biomass C and biomass N increased until the end of the incubation. No synergistic effects could be observed in the mixture treatments of compost and sugarcane filter cake. The third 42-day incubation experiment was conducted to answer the questions whether the decomposition of sugarcane filter cake also result in immobilization of nitrogen in a saline alkaline soil and whether the mixing of sugarcane filter cake with glucose (adjusted to a C/N ratio of 12.5 with (NH4)2SO4) change its decomposition. The relative percentage CO2 evolved increased from 35% of the added C in the pure 0.5% filter cake treatment to 41% in the 0.5% filter cake +0.25% glucose treatment to 48% in the 0.5% filter cake +0.5% glucose treatment. The three different amendment treatments led to immediate increases in microbial biomass C and biomass N within 6 h that persisted only in the pure filter cake treatment until the end of the incubation. The fungal cell-membrane component ergosterol showed initially an over-proportionate increase in relation to microbial biomass C that fully disappeared at the end of the incubation. The cellulase activity showed a 5-fold increase after filter cake addition, which was not further increased by the additional glucose amendment. The cellulase activity showed an exponential decline to values around 4% of the initial value in all treatments. The amount of inorganic N immobilized from day 0 to day 14 increased with increasing amount of C added in comparison to the control treatment. Since day 14, the immobilized N was re-mineralized at rates between 1.31 and 1.51 µg N g-1 soil d-1 in the amendment treatments and was thus more than doubled in comparison with the control treatment. This means that the re-mineralization rate is independent from the actual size of the microbial residues pool and also independent from the size of the soil microbial biomass. Other unknown soil properties seem to form a soil-specific gate for the release of inorganic N. The fourth incubation experiment was carried out with the objective of assessing the effects of salt additions containing different anions (Cl-, SO42-, HCO3-) on the microbial use of sugarcane filter cake and dhancha leaves amended to inoculated sterile quartz sand. In the subsequent fifth experiment, the objective was to assess the effects of inoculum and temperature on the decomposition of sugar cane filter cake. In the fourth experiment, sugarcane filter cake led to significantly lower respiration rates, lower contents of extractable C and N, and lower contents of microbial biomass C and N than dhancha leaves, but to a higher respiratory quotient RQ and to a higher content of the fungal biomarker ergosterol. The RQ was significantly increased after salt addition, when comparing the average of all salinity treatments with the control. Differences in anion composition had no clear effects on the RQ values. In experiment 2, the rise in temperature from 20 to 40°C increased the CO2 production rate by a factor of 1.6, the O2 consumption rate by a factor of 1.9 and the ergosterol content by 60%. In contrast, the contents of microbial biomass N decreased by 60% and the RQ by 13%. The effects of the inoculation with a saline soil were in most cases negative and did not indicate a better adaptation of these organisms to salinity. The general effects of anion composition on microbial biomass and activity indices were small and inconsistent. Only the fraction of 0.5 M K2SO4 extractable C and N in non-fumigated soil was consistently increased in the 1.2 M NaHCO3 treatment of both experiments. In contrast to the small salinity effects, the quality of the substrate has overwhelming effects on microbial biomass and activity indices, especially on the fungal part of the microbial community.

Management approaches in organic potato and tomato production

The presented thesis considered three different system approach topics to ensure yield and plant health in organically grown potatoes and tomatoes. The first topic describes interactions between late blight (Phytophthora infestans) incidence and soil nitrogen supply on yield in organic potato farming focussing in detail on the yield loss relationship of late blight based on results of several field trials. The interactive effects of soil N-supply, climatic conditions and late blight on the yield were studied in the presence and absence of copper fungicides from 2002-2004 for the potato cultivar Nicola. Under conditions of central Germany the use of copper significantly reduced late blight in almost all cases (15-30 %). However, the reductions in disease through copper application did not result in statistically significant yield increases (+0 – +10 %). Subsequently, only 30 % of the variation in yield could be attributed to disease reductions. A multiple regression model (R²Max), however, including disease reduction, growth duration and temperature sum from planting until 60 % disease severity was reached and soil mineral N contents 10 days after emergence could explain 75 % of the observed variations in yield. The second topic describes the effect of some selected organic fertilisers and biostimulant products on nitrogen-mineralization and efficiency, yield and diseases in organic potato and tomato trials. The organic fertilisers Biofeed Basis (BFB, plant derived, AgroBioProducts, Wageningen, Netherlands) and BioIlsa 12,5 Export (physically hydrolysed leather shavings, hair and skin of animals; ILSA, Arizignano, Italy) and two biostimulant products BioFeed Quality (BFQ, multi-compound seaweed extract, AgroBioProducts) and AUSMA (aqueous pine and spruce needle extract, A/S BIOLAT, Latvia), were tested. Both fertilisers supplied considerable amounts of nitrogen during the main uptake phases of the crops and reached yields as high or higher as compared to the control with horn meal fertilisation. The N-efficiency of the tested fertilisers in potatoes ranged from 90 to 159 kg yield*kg-1 N – input. Most effective with tomatoes were the combined treatments of fertiliser BFB and the biostimulants AUSMA and BFQ. Both biostimulants significantly increased the share of healthy fruit and/or the number of fruits. BFQ significantly increased potato yields (+6 %) in one out of two years and reduced R. solani-infestation in the potatoes. This suggests that the biostimulants had effects on plant metabolism and resistance properties. However, no effects of biostimulants on potato late blight could be observed in the fields. The third topic focused on the effect of suppressive composts and seed tuber health on the saprophytic pathogen Rhizoctonia solani in organic potato systems. In the present study 5t ha-1 DM of a yard and bio-waste (60/40) compost produced in a 5 month composting process and a 15 month old 100 % yard waste compost were used to assess the effects on potato infection with R. solani when applying composts within the limits allowed. Across the differences in initial seed tuber infestation and 12 cultivars 5t DM ha-1 of high quality composts, applied in the seed tuber area, reduced the infestation of harvested potatoes with black scurf, tuber malformations and dry core tubers by 20 to 84 %, 20 to 49 % and 38 to 54 %, respectively, while marketable yields were increased by 5 to 25 % due to lower rates of wastes after sorting (marketable yield is gross yield minus malformed tubers, tubers with dry core, tubers with black scurf > 15% infested skin). The rate of initial black scurf infection of the seed tubers also affected tuber number, health and quality significantly. Compared to healthy seed tubers initial black scurf sclerotia infestation of 2-5 and >10 % of tuber surface led in untreated plots to a decrease in marketable yields by 14-19 and 44-66 %, a increase of black scurf severity by 8-40 and 34-86 % and also increased the amount of malformed and dry core tubers by 32-57 and 109-214 %.

Status and Potential of Smallholder Livestock Production Systems in Xishuangbanna, southern P.R. China

With Chinas rapid economic development during the last decades, the national demand for livestock products has quadrupled within the last 20 years. Most of that increase in demand has been answered by subsidized industrialized production systems, while million of smallholders, which still provide the larger share of livestock products in the country, have been neglected. Fostering those systems would help China to lower its strong urban migration streams, enhance the livelihood of poorer rural population and provide environmentally save livestock products which have a good chance to satisfy customers demand for ecological food. Despite their importance, China’s smallholder livestock keepers have not yet gained appropriate attention from governmental authorities and researchers. However, profound analysis of those systems is required so that adequate support can lead to a better resource utilization and productivity in the sector. To this aim, this pilot study analyzes smallholder livestock production systems in Xishuangbanna, located in southern China. The area is bordered by Lao and Myanmar and geographically counts as tropical region. Its climate is characterized by dry and temperate winters and hot summers with monsoon rains from May to October. While the regionis plain, at about 500 m asl above sea level in the south, outliers of the Himalaya mountains reach out into the north of Xishuangbanna, where the highest peak reaches 2400 m asl. Except of one larger city, Jinghong, Xishuangbanna mainly is covered by tropical rainforest, areas under agricultural cultivation and villages. The major income is generated through inner-Chinese tourism and agricultural production. Intensive rubber plantations are distinctive for the lowland plains while small-scaled traditional farms are scattered in the mountane regions. In order to determine the current state and possible future chances of smallholder livestock production in that region, this study analyzed the current status of the smallholder livestock sector in the Naban River National Nature Reserve (NRNNR), an area which is largely representative for the whole prefecture. It covers an area of about 50square kilometer and reaches from 470 up to 2400 m asl. About 5500 habitants of different ethnic origin are situated in 24 villages. All data have been collected between October 2007 and May 2010. Three major objectives have been addressed in the study: 1. Classifying existing pig production systems and exploring respective pathways for development 2. Quantifying the performance of pig breeding systemsto identify bottlenecks for production 3. Analyzing past and current buffalo utilization to determine the chances and opportunities of buffalo keeping in the future In order to classify the different pig production s ystems, a baseline survey (n=204, stratified cluster sampling) was carried out to gain data about livestock species, numbers, management practices, cultivated plant species and field sizes as well associo-economic characteristics. Sampling included two clusters at village level (altitude, ethnic affiliation), resulting in 13 clusters of which 13-17 farms were interviewed respectively. Categorical Principal Component Analysis (CatPCA) and a two-step clustering algorithm have been applied to identify determining farm characteristics and assort recorded households into classes of livestock production types. The variables keep_sow_yes/no, TLU_pig, TLU_buffalo, size_of_corn_fields, altitude_class, size_of_tea_plantationand size_of_rubber_fieldhave been found to be major determinants for the characterization of the recorded farms. All farms have extensive or semi-intensive livestock production, pigs and buffaloes are predominant livestock species while chicken and aquaculture are available but play subordinate roles for livelihoods. All pig raisers rely on a single local breed, which is known as Small Ear Pig (SMEP) in the region. Three major production systemshave been identified: Livestock-corn based LB; 41%), rubber based (RB; 39%) and pig based (PB;20%) systems. RB farms earn high income from rubber and fatten 1.9 ±1.80 pigs per household (HH), often using purchased pig feed at markets. PB farms own similar sized rubber plantations and raise 4.7 ±2.77 pigs per HH, with fodder mainly being cultivated and collected in theforest. LB farms grow corn, rice and tea and keep 4.6 ±3.32 pigs per HH, also fed with collected and cultivated fodder. Only 29% of all pigs were marketed (LB: 20%; RB: 42%; PB: 25%), average annual mortality was 4.0 ±4.52 pigs per farm (LB: 4.6 ±3.68; RB: 1.9 ±2.14; PB: 7.1 ±10.82). Pig feed mainly consists of banana pseudo stem, corn and rice hives and is prepared in batches about two to three times per week. Such fodder might be sufficient in energy content but lacks appropriate content of protein. Pigs therefore suffer from malnutrition, which becomes most critical in the time before harvest season around October. Farmers reported high occurrences of gastrointestinal parasites in carcasses and often pig stables were wet and filled with manure. Deficits in nutritional and hygienic management are major limits for development and should be the first issues addressed to improve productivity. SME pork was found to be known and referred by local customers in town and by richer lowland farmers. However, high prices and lacking availability of SME pork at local wet-markets were the reasons which limited purchase. If major management constraints are overcome, pig breeders (PB and LB farms) could increase the share of marketed pigs for town markets and provide fatteners to richer RB farmers. RB farmers are interested in fattening pigs for home consumption but do not show any motivation for commercial pig raising. To determine the productivity of input factors in pig production, eproductive performance, feed quality and quantity as well as weight development of pigs under current management were recorded. The data collection included a progeny history survey covering 184 sows and 437 farrows, bi-weekly weighing of 114 pigs during a 16-months time-span on 21 farms (10 LB and 11 PB) as well as the daily recording of feed quality and quantity given to a defined number of pigs on the same 21 farms. Feed samples of all recorded ingredients were analyzed for their respective nutrient content. Since no literature values on thedigestibility of banana pseudo stem – which is a major ingredient of traditional pig feed in NRNNR – were found, a cross-sectional digestibility trial with 2x4 pigs has been conducted on a station in the research area. With the aid of PRY Herd Life Model, all data have been utilized to determine thesystems’ current (Status Quo = SQ) output and the productivity of the input factor “feed” in terms of saleable life weight per kg DM feed intake and monetary value of output per kg DM feed intake.Two improvement scenarios were simulated, assuming 1) that farmers adopt a culling managementthat generates the highest output per unit input (Scenario 1; SC I) and 2) that through improved feeding, selected parameters of reproduction are improved by 30% (SC II). Daily weight gain averaged 55 ± 56 g per day between day 200 and 600. The average feed energy content of traditional feed mix was 14.92 MJ ME. Age at first farrowing averaged 14.5 ± 4.34 months, subsequent inter-farrowing interval was 11.4 ± 2.73 months. Littersize was 5.8 piglets and weaning age was 4.3 ± 0.99 months. 18% of piglets died before weaning. Simulating pig production at actualstatus, it has been show that monetary returns on inputs (ROI) is negative (1:0.67), but improved (1:1.2) when culling management was optimized so that highest output is gained per unit feed input. If in addition better feeding, controlled mating and better resale prices at fixed dates were simulated, ROI further increased to 1:2.45, 1:2.69, 1:2.7 and 1:3.15 for four respective grower groups. Those findings show the potential of pork production, if basic measures of improvement are applied. Futureexploration of the environment, including climate, market-season and culture is required before implementing the recommended measures to ensure a sustainable development of a more effective and resource conserving pork production in the future. The two studies have shown that the production of local SME pigs plays an important role in traditional farms in NRNNR but basic constraints are limiting their productivity. However, relatively easy approaches are sufficient for reaching a notable improvement. Also there is a demand for more SME pork on local markets and, if basic constraints have been overcome, pig farmers could turn into more commercial producers and provide pork to local markets. By that, environmentally safe meat can be offered to sensitive consumers while farmers increase their income and lower the risk of external shocks through a more diverse income generating strategy. Buffaloes have been found to be the second important livestock species on NRNNR farms. While they have been a core resource of mixed smallholderfarms in the past, the expansion of rubber tree plantations and agricultural mechanization are reasons for decreased swamp buffalo numbers today. The third study seeks to predict future utilization of buffaloes on different farm types in NRNNR by analyzing the dynamics of its buffalo population and land use changes over time and calculating labor which is required for keeping buffaloes in view of the traction power which can be utilized for field preparation. The use of buffaloes for field work and the recent development of the egional buffalo population were analyzed through interviews with 184 farmers in 2007/2008 and discussions with 62 buffalo keepers in 2009. While pig based farms (PB; n=37) have abandoned buffalo keeping, 11% of the rubber based farms (RB; n=71) and 100% of the livestock-corn based farms (LB; n=76) kept buffaloes in 2008. Herd size was 2.5 ±1.80 (n=84) buffaloes in early 2008 and 2.2 ±1.69 (n=62) in 2009. Field work on own land was the main reason forkeeping buffaloes (87.3%), but lending work buffaloes to neighbors (79.0%) was also important. Other purposes were transport of goods (16.1%), buffalo trade (11.3%) and meat consumption(6.4%). Buffalo care required 6.2 ±3.00 working hours daily, while annual working time of abuffalo was 294 ±216.6 hours. The area ploughed with buffaloes remained constant during the past 10 years despite an expansion of land cropped per farm. Further rapid replacement of buffaloes by tractors is expected in the near future. While the work economy is drastically improved by the use of tractors, buffaloes still can provide cheap work force and serve as buffer for economic shocks on poorer farms. Especially poor farms, which lack alternative assets that could quickly be liquidizedin times of urgent need for cash, should not abandon buffalo keeping. Livestock has been found to be a major part of small mixed farms in NRNNR. The general productivity was low in both analyzed species, buffaloes and pigs. Productivity of pigs can be improved through basic adjustments in feeding, reproductive and hygienic management, and with external support pig production could further be commercialized to provide pork and weaners to local markets and fattening farms. Buffalo production is relatively time intensive, and only will be of importance in the future to very poor farms and such farms that cultivate very small terraces on steep slopes. These should be encouraged to further keep buffaloes. With such measures, livestock production in NRNNR has good chances to stay competitive in the future.

Effect of planting methods and cyanobacterial inoculants on yield, water productivity and economics of rice cultivation

The impact of two crop planting methods and of the application of cyanobacterial inoculants on plant growth, yield, water productivity and economics of rice cultivation was evaluated with the help of a split plot designed experiment during the rainy season of 2011 in New Delhi, India. Conventional transplanting and system of rice intensification (SRI) were tested as two different planting methods and seven treatments that considered cyanobacterial inoculants and compost were applied with three repetitions each. Results revealed no significant differences in plant performance and crop yield between both planting methods. However, the application of biofilm based BGA bio-fertiliser + 2/3 N had an overall positive impact on both, plant performance (plant height, number of tillers) and crop yield (number and weight of panicles) as well as on grain and straw yield. Higher net return and a higher benefit-cost ratio were observed in rice fields under SRI planting method, whereas the application of BGA + PGPR + 2/3 N resulted in highest values. Total water productivity and irrigation water productivity was significantly higher under SRI practices (5.95 and 3.67 kg ha^(-1) mm^(-1)) compared to practices of conventional transplanting (3.36 and 2.44), meaning that using SRI method, water saving of about 34 % could be achieved and significantly less water was required to produce one kg of rice. This study could show that a combination of plant growth promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR) in conjunction with BGA and 2/3 dose of mineral N fertiliser can support crop growth performance, crop yields and reduces overall production cost, wherefore this practices should be used in the integrated nutrient management of rice fields in India.

Alumnado con trastorno del espectro autista en el aula

Se pretende la inclusi??n del alumnado con TEA (Trastorno del Espectro Autista) en aulas ordinarias, y el aprovechamiento global y rec??proco de metodolog??a y materiales espec??ficos con alumnado de Educaci??n Infantil. La metodolog??a se pretende incluir como parte activa del curr??culum de Educaci??n Infantil. Se ha realizado un plan de trabajo estructurado y secuenciado para el alumnado con TEA y rentabilizar el aprendizaje de todo el alumnado de Educaci??n Infantil, sobre todo en aspectos de anticipaci??n, utilizaci??n de est??mulos visuales, agendas, tratamiento para el control de la conducta, etc.; ser?? la base de la actividad docente del alumnado de Educaci??n Infantil. Se ha pretendido implicar a toda la comunidad educativa.

Aplicaciones didácticas en EGB de la investigación Vocabulario básico del español y sus aplicaciones a la enseñanza II.

Elaborar unos instrumentos o medios didácticos de fácil aplicación en el aula para distribuir y clasificar los vocablos seleccionados en la investigación en la que se basa la experiencia. Realizar la enseñanza de los vocablos en los distintos cursos de EGB. Elaborar listas complementarias de vocablos con importante valor pedagógico. Cinco colegios públicos de Oviedo, con 4400 alumnos en total, distribuidos en 128 unidades escolares. Directamente en la experiencia participan 16 clases con 217 escolares de nivel sociocultural medio-bajo. El vocabulario objeto de estudio consta de 5529 vocablos procedentes de la investigación: 'Vocabulario básico del español y sus aplicaciones a la enseñanza I'. 1. Elaboración de instrumentos o medios didácticos (distribución de los vocablos en ciclos y cursos; clasificación temática; clasificación ortográfica según dificultad; presentación de resultados e instrumentos elaborados a modo orientativo). 2. Labor realizada en las aulas (desarrollo de actividades; repercusión de estos trabajos en los alumnos; aplicación de test de vocabulario y comparación al principio y final de la experiencia; experiencias del profesorado). 3. Elaboración de listas de vocablos complementarias. Posteriormente se expone una síntesis de una didáctica del vocabulario en la que integran los resultados obtenidos. Para determinar el avance que experimentan los alumnos aplicaron el test de cultura verbal TCV de A. Cordero, el test de aptitudes escolares TEA-1 de Thurstone y el test de vocabulario usual TVU de V. García Hoz. La experiencia es bien recibida por los alumnos que, además, expresan su interés. También se producen una serie de efectos positivos como son: la mejor expresión oral con la utilización de un vocabulario más rico y adecuado, la mejora de la ortografía y la redacción, la mejor comprensión de los textos, además de adquirir y desarrollar técnicas para mejorar y enriquecer autónomamente su léxico, y adquirir sentido crítico. Se ofrece un marco de referencia para la programación de la enseñanza del vocabulario dado que ofrece unos instrumentos didácticos que facilitan esta enseñanza. Además de ofrecer una bibliografía de referencia para este trabajo se aconseja la utilización de los vocablos ofrecidos en la investigación 'Vocabulario básico del español y sus aplicaciones a la enseñanza' para la realización de las programaciones, advirtiendo que la enseñanza de estos vocablos debe seguir ampliándose lo más posible. Estiman que puede, aprovechando todos los datos obtenidos, formularse una didáctica coherente y práctica. Proponen además, una serie de trabajos que se pueden hacer relacionados con éste.

Diseño de un programa de educación en función de los determinantes del rendimiento escolar.

Investigar las diferencias en el rendimiento académico de los alumnos al finalizar el primer ciclo de EGB según hayan estado o no escolarizados en Preescolar. Determinar la influencia de las variables socioculturales del entorno y analizar las relaciones entre las características intelectuales de los sujetos en el rendimento en primero de EGB. Elaborar un conjunto de directrices técnico-pedagógicas que orienten la toma de decisiones y las estrategias docentes para establecer un programa de Educación Compensatoria y disminuir la desigualdad de oportunidades ante la educación. 740 sujetos de primero de EGB según sexo, hábitat, régimen de enseñanza y tipo de escolarización en Preescolar. 1. Investigación sobre el rendimiento en primer ciclo: la variable dependiente es el rendimiento académico del alumno al finalizar primero de EGB. Las varibles independientes son: escolarización en Preescolar, nivel de madurez cognoscitivo alcanzado por el sujeto y desarrollo formativo al comenzar EGB, características intelectuales, factores socioculturales y hábitat familiar. 2. Diseño de un programa de Educación Compensatoria. Cuestionarios para determinar los factores condicionantes del tipo de Educación Preescolar recibida, las variables socioculturales y pruebas como el Reversal y el primaria 'I' de TEA. La escolarización en Preescolar actúa como una variable definitoria del rendimiento al finalizar primero de EGB. Son los niños preescolarizados los que obtienen mejores resultados, las diferencias se acusan más en el área de Lenguaje. Presentan peores resultados los niños procedentes de sectores sociales más desfavorecidos. Residir en hábitat urbano favorece la adquisición de la preparación cognoscitiva adecuada a las exigencias del trabajo escolar. La preescolarización parece tener un peso más importante que la clase social en el rendimiento, probablemente en cursos superiores este peso cambie de signo. Cuando la preparación-madurez cognoscitiva de un niño al acceder a EGB es evaluado como deficiente, las probabilidades de éxito durante el ciclo preparatorio son escasas. Se presenta un programa de Educación Compensatoria con unas pautas de actuación dirigidas a prevenir el hándicap actuando sobre los factores que intervienen precozmente en el individuo, dividido en 3 tipos de estrategias: de estimulación precoz; orientadas hacia una Educación Preescolar especial y orientadas a la preparación intensiva de sujetos para la integración escolar. Analiza una bibliografía específica además de la utilizada para la investigación. Debemos estudiar los procesos intermedios entre las desigualdades previas y las del rendimiento para controlar sus verdaderas causas y poder aplicar los remedios oportunos. También hay que llevar a la práctica el diseño presentado para evaluarlo.

El ciclo superior en la EGB.

Dar una explicación de las razones por las que fallan los alumnos a lo largo de su escolarización, viendo que variables tienen mayor influencia. Basándose en el idea de la igualdad de oportunidades, se pretende ver la influencia tanto de variables individuales, como de las diferencias, medio ambientales, que contribuyen a aumentar estas últimas. La muestra está formada por 561 alumnos que representan el 3,43 por ciento de la población escolar total. La muestra se selecciona por zonas (urbana, semiurbana y rural) y por tipo de centro (públicos y privados). Los alumnos se distribuyen en tres grupos: A) Los que no han tenido nunca evaluaciones negativas; B) Los que han tenido alguna; C) Los que han repetido uno o más cursos. Se realizó un estudio transversal, en el que se tuvieron en cuenta como variables influyentes en el rendimiento: inteligencia general, factor verbal, razonamiento, cálculo, adaptación, autoconcepto, técnicas de trabajo intelectual, nivel socio-económico familiar, nivel cultural familiar, expectativas familiares, expectativas del alumno, expectativas del profesor, participación de los padres en el proceso educativo. D-48: inteligencia general. TEA-2: verbal, razonamiento y cálculo. Bell: adaptación. Autoconcepto: facilitado por la cátedra de Pedagogía experimental de la Universidad de Oviedo. Pozar: inventario de habitos de estudio. Cuestionario elaborado por el Servicio de Orientación escolar y Vocacional de Asturias, para analizar los niveles socioeconómicos, culturales, expectativas, participación de los padres, número de hermanos. Sólo un 48 por ciento logra realizar la EGB sin suspender alguna de las calificaciones finales. En el test TEA-2 los alumnos del grupo B están en un 46 por ciento en el nivel bajo, los del grupo C están en un 76 por ciento. Los alumnos del grupo A obtienen mayores puntuaciones en el test de autoconcepto que los de los otros dos grupos. Los alumnos opinan que sus padres se preocupan por su educación, un 97 por ciento del total opinan que se preocupan mucho o demasiado. Se establece una correlación positiva entre nivel socio-económico y rendimiento académico. En el grupo C, el 35 por ciento opina que sus hijos no deben realizar más estudios una vez terminada la EGB, en el grupo C esta opinión es del 13 por ciento y en el grupo A del 3 por ciento. Las variables no actúan solas y de forma individual, sino interactuando entre sí, y sólo una estrategia global que sea capaz de generar un cambio de las situaciones que rodean al alumno, dentro y fuera de la escuela, podría crear un sistema educativo, que resulte coherente con una sociedad más igualitaria y justa.

Fundamentación teórico-práctica de un programa de orientación educativa.

Obtener el perfil de los alumnos del Ciclo Superior (octavo de EGB) para ofrecer un claro ejemplo de cómo se realiza un estudio de carácter orientativo a nivel escolar e intergrupal. 99 alumnos de octavo de EGB del Colegio Público San Pablo de la Eria distribuidos en tres aulas (a, b, c). Tras una selección y descripción, tanto de la muestra como de los instrumentos o pruebas, se pasa a la aplicación de los mismos, la elaboración de planillas, gráficos y análisis estadísticos de los datos obtenidos, para concluir con una interpretación estadística de los mismos. Las variables estudiadas son: inteligencia, aptitudes, adaptación personal y social e intereses profesionales. Test de factor 'G' escala 2 de Cattell. Test de aptitudes escolares TEA-2 de Thurstone. Cuestionario de adaptación para adolescentes de Bell (adaptación española del doctor E. Cerdá). Test de intereses profesionales de Luján. El análisis de la información obtenida se realiza a traves del cálculo de medias y desviaciones, correlaciones entre pruebas y grupos, contrastes de medias y análisis de varianza. En cuanto a la correlación entre pruebas se comprueba que en los tres grupos hay una correlación positiva, aunque baja, entre G-2 y TEA-2, sin embargo, la correlación entre G-2 y Bell y TEA-2 y Bell son muy bajas. Con respecto a los tests G-2 y TEA-2 se observa que los grupos no presentan variaciones con respecto al grupo normativo. En el nivel de inteligencia general no hay diferencias significativas entre los tres grupos. En las aptitudes sí se observan diferencias significativas, siendo 'a' el grupo que posee la media más elevada con gran diferencia respecto a 'c'. En el nivel de adaptación tampoco se observan diferencias significativas, si bien un análisis más pormenorizado refleja que en general 'a' es el grupo que presenta el nivel más óptimo en adaptación general, 'c' es el que tiene peor nivel tanto en adaptación social como familiar y emocional, y 'b' tendría una situación intermedia aunque aproximándose más a 'c' que a 'a'. Los intereses profesionales mostrados están influidos por el grado de desarrollo de los componentes de la estructura mental de cada uno de los alumnos, observándose diferencias significativas entre la muestra estudiada tanto en las preferencias por el campo profesional como por el campo de las actividades. Existe una diferencia significativa entre los tres grupos en función del rendimiento de los alumnos. Es evidente que el Colegio forma los grupos en función de dicho rendimiento. El nivel global de rendimiento académico es medio, salvo excepciones. La orientación es muy necesaria en el Centro escolar, sobre todo en octavo, con vistas a un futuro próximo.

Repetidores del Ciclo Medio : trabajo experimental acerca de su perfil aptitudinal y variables socio-ambientales.

Determinar el peso de algunos factores que pudieran estar incidiendo en el fracaso escolar en el Ciclo Medio. 18 colegios públicos ubicados en zonas urbanas, semiurbanas y rurales de Asturias. 404 alumnos en total, divididos en dos grupos: experimental y de control. El grupo experimental lo formaron alumnos nacidos en el año 1972 que estuviesen repitiendo o hubiesen repetido algún curso en el Ciclo Medio y cursaran cuarto o quinto nivel. El grupo de control lo formaron alumnos nacidos en 1972 y que estaban en sexto nivel. Variables independientes: haber tenido o no Educación Preescolar, utilización de transporte, nivel cultural familiar, nivel socioeconómico, participación de los padres en las tareas escolares y expectativas familiares. Variables dependientes: inteligencia y velocidad y comprensión lectora. 2 cuestionarios elaborados 'ad hoc'. Test de inteligencia general G-2 de Cattell. Test de aptitudes TEA-1. Prueba de comprensión lectora de P. Pérez González. Prueba de cálculo. Cuestionario de adaptación P-5 de la escala EOS-5. Análisis de diferencias significativas entre los datos del grupo experimental y del grupo control utilizando el cálculo de la Chi-cuadrado y el coeficiente de correlación de Pearson. Los factores que más parecen incidir favorablemente en un buen rendimiento escolar son: expectativa de los padres, participación de éstos en las tareas escolares y el nivel cultural y socioeconómico de la familia. Los alumnos del grupo experimental pertenecían, en mayor numero que los del grupo de control, a familias de nivel cultural y socioeconómico bajo y sus padres muestran un nivel bajo de preocupación y colaboración con el quehacer educativos y pocas expectativas. Del estudio de personalidad se deduce que el grupo de control tiene siempre una mejor adaptación en los factores personal, familiar, social y escolar que el grupo experimental. Se constatan diferencias significativas a favor del grupo de control en los siguientes aspectos: inteligencia general, comprensión lectora y cálculo operativo. Propone como alternativa el facilitar una atención individualizada a los niños que, por sus características psicosociales, la necesitan de forma imperiosa puesto que si no, están abocados al fracaso escolar. Los factores extraescolares tienen un gran peso en el rendimiento académico y la mejora del mismo no es sólo problema de la escuela, sino que también es problema de cambio en las condiciones socioambientales y socioculturales que rodean al niño antes y durante el proceso educativo.

Estructura familiar e inteligencia.

Comprobar que el nivel intelectual desciende con el aumento del tamaño familiar; que las puntuaciones en los tests de inteligencia se hacen más bajas para los miembros más pequeños; que el nivel de inteligencia de los nacidos en último lugar es menor que el de los intermedios y que los hijos únicos puntuan menos. Se utilizan dos muestras paralelas: grupo a constituido por 656 estudiantes de tercero de BUP con edades de 16 a 23 años, de las comarcas de Mieres y Langreo; grupo B constituido por 374 reclutas destinados en el Regimiento de Infanteria Mahón 46 de Menorca de edades entre 17 y 27 años procedentes de diversos puntos de España. Las variables de estudio en el grupo a fueron: tamaño familiar, orden de nacimiento, intervalos de nacimiento entre los hermanos y clase sociocultural como variables independientes y como variable dependiente la inteligencia. En el grupo B se midieron como variables independientes el tamaño familiary el nivel de educación formal, y como variable dependiente la inteligencia, por lo que en este grupo sólo se comprobó la relación entre tamaño familiar y nivel intelectual. En el grupo A para medir la inteligencia se usó el D-48 en la adaptación española de TEA SA. En el grupo B la medida de la inteligencia se hizo a través de la batería básica -I G 2-, el resto de los datos de estudio fueron obtenidos a través de cuestionarios elaborados al efecto. Medias, desviaciones típicas y centiles para situar a los sujetos a los que se les administró el D-48. Coeficiente de correlación entre las variables dependientes y las independientes. Significación de las diferencias entre las puntuaciones centiles medias de los sujetos según: tamaño familiar, orden de nacimiento, orden de nacimiento según tamaño familiar, etc. Significación de las diferencias entre puntuaciones centiles medias de los unigénitos y los nacidos en familias de diferente tamaño. En el grupo B, se usaron las puntuaciones directas, ya que el test utilizado no permitía la transformación en centiles. El nivel de inteligencia está influido negativamente por el tamaño familiar, se dan correlaciones significativas de -0'08 en el grupo A y de -0'25 en el grupo B. Se encuentran correlaciones bajas pero altamente significativas entre orden de nacimiento e inteligencia para el grupo A. No se comprueba que exista una disminución progresiva del nivel intelectual en función del orden de nacimiento en ninguno de los tamaños familiares. Los benjamines puntuan más bajo que sus hermanos, en especial en las familias con más hijos. Los hijos únicos alcazan una puntuación centil media inferior a la mayoría de las posiciones de nacimiento distinguidas en los restantes tamaños familiares.