Evidence for sex differences in fetal programming of physiological stress reactivity in infancy

Associations between low birth weight and prenatal anxiety and later psychopathology may arise from programming effects likely to be adaptive under some, but not other, environmental exposures and modified by sex differences. If physiological reactivity, which also confers vulnerability or resilience in an environment-dependent manner, is associated with birth weight and prenatal anxiety, it will be a candidate to mediate the links with psychopathology. From a general population sample of 1,233 first-time mothers recruited at 20 weeks gestation, a sample of 316 stratified by adversity was assessed at 32 weeks and when their infants were aged 29 weeks (N = 271). Prenatal anxiety was assessed by self-report, birth weight from medical records, and vagal reactivity from respiratory sinus arrhythmia during four nonstressful and one stressful (still-face) procedure. Lower birth weight for gestational age predicted higher vagal reactivity only in girls (interaction term, p = .016), and prenatal maternal anxiety predicted lower vagal reactivity only in boys (interaction term, p = .014). These findings are consistent with sex differences in fetal programming, whereby prenatal risks are associated with increased stress reactivity in females but decreased reactivity in males, with distinctive advantages and penalties for each sex.

Fetal programming of adipose tissue function: an evolutionary perspective

Obesity is an escalating threat of pandemic proportions and has risen to such unrivaled prominence in such a short period of time that it has come to define a whole generation in many countries around the globe. The burden of obesity, however, is not equally shared among the population, with certain ethnicities being more prone to obesity than others, while some appear to be resistant to obesity altogether. The reasons behind this ethnic basis for obesity resistance and susceptibility, however, have remained largely elusive. In recent years, much evidence has shown that the level of brown adipose tissue thermogenesis, which augments energy expenditure and is negatively associated with obesity in both rodents and humans, varies greatly between ethnicities. Interestingly, the incidence of low birth weight, which is associated with an increased propensity for obesity and cardiovascular disease in later life, has also been shown to vary by ethnic background. This review serves to reconcile ethnic variations in BAT development and function with ethnic differences in birth weight outcomes to argue that the variation in obesity susceptibility between ethnic groups may have its origins in the in utero programming of BAT development and function as a result of evolutionary adaptation to cold environments.

Dystrophin immunoreactivity in normal and Duchenne human fetal neurons in culture.

Dystrophin, the protein product defective in Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD), is present in all types of muscle and in the brain. The function of the protein is unknown and its role in the brain is unclear, although 30% of DMD patients show nonprogressive mental retardation. We have therefore studied the localisation of dystrophin in cultures of normal and DMD human fetal neurons using antibodies raised to different regions of the protein. Dystrophin immunoreactivity was demonstrated in the soma and axon hillock of normal neurons and appeared to be associated with the inner part of the cell membrane, although some intracellular staining was also observed. Positive dystrophin staining was present only in cells with fully developed neuronal features, although not all the neurons were positive. Glial cells were always negative for the antigen. Immunostaining with antibodies to the brain spectrins indicate that the dystrophin antibodies did not crossreact with these proteins. The possibility of cross-reactivity with other proteins is discussed. Studies of cells cultured from a DMD fetus also showed specific dystrophin immunostaining in neurons, although the muscle was generally negative for dystrophin. However, the localisation of dystrophin immunostaining and that of the brain spectrins and neurofilaments appeared abnormal, as did the overall morphology of the cells. This suggests that dystrophin may play a role during brain development and dystrophin deficiency results in abnormal neuronal features. This would be consistent with the nonprogressive nature of the mental retardation observed in DMD patients.

Dystrophin-related protein, utrophin, in normal and dystrophic human fetal skeletal muscle.

Dystrophin is the product of the Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD) gene. Dystrophin-related protein (utrophin), an autosomal homologue of dystrophin, was studied in skeletal muscle from normal fetuses aged 9-26 weeks and one stillbirth of 41 weeks' gestation, and compared with low- and high-risk DMD fetuses aged 9-20 weeks. Utrophin was present at the sarcolemma from before 9 weeks' gestation, although there was variability in intensity both within and between myotubes. Sarcolemmal immunolabelling became more uniform, and levels of utrophin increased to a maximum at approximately 17-18 weeks. Levels then declined, until by 26 weeks sarcolemmal labelling was negligible and levels were similar to adult control muscle. By 41 weeks there was virtually no sarcolemmal labelling, although immunolabelling of capillaries was bright. Similar results were obtained with normal and DMD fetal muscle. Utrophin is therefore expressed in the presence and absence of dystrophin and down-regulated before birth in normal fetal muscle fibres. Samples were not available to determine whether or when, utrophin levels decline in DMD fetal muscle. On Western blots, utrophin was shown to have a smaller relative molecular mass than adult dystrophin, but similar to the fetal isoform. Blood vessels were brightly immunolabelled at all ages, although utrophin immunolabelling of peripheral nerves increased with gestational age.

Fetal paleopathology: an impossible discipline?

This chapter introduces the concept of fetal paleopathology in archaeological material, highlighting the limitations and potential of such research to inform us about the lives of mothers and their babies in the past. Problems with terminology, aging methods, preservation and recognizing lesions in skeletal remains are discussed, before potential new sources of research are highlighted.

The connective tissue of the adductor canal - a morphological study in fetal and adult specimens

The adductor canal is a conical or pyramid-shaped pathway that contains the femoral vessels, saphenous nerve and a varying amount of fibrous tissue. It is involved in adductor canal syndrome, a claudication syndrome involving young individuals. Our objective was to study modifications induced by aging on the connective tissue and to correlate them to the proposed pathophysiological mechanism. The bilateral adductor canals and femoral vessels of four adult and five fetal specimens were removed en bloc and analyzed. Sections 12 mu m thick were obtained and the connective tissue studied with Sirius Red, Verhoeff, Weigert and Azo stains. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) photomicrographs of the surfaces of each adductor canal were also analyzed. Findings were homogeneous inside each group. The connective tissue of the canal was continuous with the outer layer of the vessels in both groups. The pattern of concentric, thick collagen type I bundles in fetal specimens was replaced by a diffuse network of compact collagen bundles with several transversal fibers and an impressive content of collagen III fibers. Elastic fibers in adults were not concentrated in the thick bundles but dispersed in line with the transversal fiber system. A dynamic compression mechanism with or without an evident constricting fibrous band has been proposed previously for adductor canal syndrome, possibly involving the connective tissue inside the canal. The vessels may not slide freely during movement. These age-related modifications in normal individuals may represent necessary conditions for this syndrome to develop.

Localization of Cathepsins D and B at the Maternal-Fetal Interface and the Invasiveness of the Trophoblast during the Postimplantation Period in the Mouse

A survey of existing data suggests that trophoblast cells produce factors involved in extracellular matrix degradation. In this study, we correlated the expression of cathepsins D and B in the murine ectoplacental cone with the ultrastructural progress of decidual invasion by trophoblast cells. Both proteases were immunolocalized at implantation sites in lysosome-endosome-like compartments of trophoblast giant cells. Cathepsin D, but not cathepsin B, was also detected ultrastructurally in extracellular compartments surrounded by processes of the invading trophoblast containing extracellular matrix components and endometrial cell debris. The expression of cathepsins D and B by trophoblast cells was confirmed by RT-PCR in ectoplacental cones isolated from implantation chambers at gestation day 7.5. Our data addressed a positive relationship between the expression and presence of cathepsin D at the extracellular compartment of the maternal-fetal interface and the invasiveness of the trophoblast during the postimplantation period, suggesting a participation of invading trophoblast cells in the cathepsin D release. Such findings indicate that mouse trophoblast cells might exhibit a proteolytic ability to partake in the decidual invasion process at the maternal-fetal interface. Copyright (C) 2010 S. Karger AG, Basel

Deiodinase-mediated thyroid hormone inactivation minimizes thyroid hormone signaling in the early development of fetal skeleton

Thyroid hormone (TH) plays a key role on post-natal bone development and metabolism, while its relevance during fetal bone development is uncertain. To Study this, pregnant once were made hypothyroid and fetuses harvested at embryonic days (E) 12.5, 14.5, 16.5 and 18.5. Despite a marked reduction in fetal tissue concentration of both T4 and T3, bone development, as assessed at the distal epiphyseal growth plate of the femur and vertebra, was largely preserved Lip to E16.5. Only at E18.5, the hypothyroid fetuses exhibited a reduction in femoral type I and type X collagen and osteocalcin mRNA levels, in the length and area of the proliferative and hypertrophic zones, in the number of chondrocytes per proliferative column, and in the number of hypertrophic chondrocyres, in addition to a slight delay in endochondral and intramembranous ossification. This Suggests that LIP to E 16.5, thyroid hormone signaling in bone is kept to a minimum. In fact, measuring the expression level of the activating and inactivating iodothyronine deiodinases (D2 and D3) helped understand how this is achieved. D3 mRNA was readily detected as early as E14.5 and its expression decreased markedly (similar to 10-fold) at E18.5, and even more at 14 days after birth (P14). In contrast. D2 mRNA expression increased significantly by E18.5 and markedly (similar to 2.5-fold) by P14. The reciprocal expression levels of D2 and D3 genes during early bone development along with the absence of a hypothyroidism-induced bone phenotype at this time Suggest that coordinated reciprocal deiodinase expression keeps thyroid hormone signaling in bone to very low levels at this early stage of bone development. (c) 2008 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

Women's experiences of two different self-assessment methods for monitoring fetal movements in full-term pregnancy : a crossover trial

Background: Low maternal awareness of fetal movements is associated with negative birth outcomes. Knowledge regarding pregnant women's compliance with programs of systematic self-assessment of fetal movements is needed. The aim of this study was to investigate women's experiences using two different self-assessment methods for monitoring fetal movements and to determine if the women had a preference for one or the other method. Methods: Data were collected by a crossover trial; 40 healthy women with an uncomplicated full-term pregnancy counted the fetal movements according to a Count-to-ten method and assessed the character of the movements according to the Mindfetalness method. Each self-assessment was observed by a midwife and followed by a questionnaire. A total of 80 self-assessments was performed; 40 with each method. Results: Of the 40 women, only one did not find at least one method suitable. Twenty of the total of 39 reported a preference, 15 for the Mindfetalness method and five for the Count-to-ten method. All 39 said they felt calm, relaxed, mentally present and focused during the observations. Furthermore, the women described the observation of the movements as safe and reassuring and a moment for communication with their unborn baby. Conclusions: In the 80 assessments all but one of the women found one or both methods suitable for self-assessment of fetal movements and they felt comfortable during the assessments. More women preferred the Mindfetalness method compared to the count-to-ten method, than vice versa.

A maturação biológica e a seleção de atletas no minibasquetebol

Este trabalho tem como objeto principal investigar o nível da maturação biológica e o processo de seleção dos atletas de minibasquetebol. A amostra é constituída por 43 minibasquetebolistas do sexo masculino, com idades entre 11 e 12 anos, pertencentes às quatro equipes finalistas do Campeonato Gaúcho de Minibasquetebol de 1999. Para avaliar o nível de maturação biológica dos atletas, utilizamos o Teste de Tanner que determina o grau de desenvolvimento da característica sexual secundária - pêlos pubianos. O método utilizado é o da auto-avaliação, conforme descrito em MATSUDO & MATSUDO (1991). Para identificar a presença do aspecto maturação biológica, nos planejamentos de treinos e participação em competições, elaboramos um instrumento em forma de questionário, respondido pelos técnicos das equipes participantes da amostra. Para definir quais os critérios utilizados para a seleção dos atletas, preparamos uma entrevista semi-estruturada feita com os técnicos. Verificamos que, na determinação do nível de maturação biológica dos atletas, a concentração de freqüência é mais elevada no nível P3 que, junto com o nível P4 representam 74,4% da amostra, indicando como característica importante do grupo um estágio de maturação continuada. Os técnicos referem no questionário que não levam em consideração o aspecto maturacional biológico dos atletas na elaboração dos trabalhos juntos aos mesmos. Através da entrevista com os profissionais, constatamos que o desempenho técnico é o principal critério por eles utilizado para a seleção dos atletas. A principal conclusão deste estudo sugere que os atletas selecionados alcançam tal posição por apresentarem condição de maturados ou pós-maturados.

Líquido amniótico : perfil bioquímico do desenvolvimento renal fetal

Resumo não disponível.

Maturação e fecundação "in vitro" de ovócitos de caninos domésticos (Canis familiaris)

Este estudo foi realizado com o objetivo de 1) determinar a eficácia de duas temperaturas (370 C e 390 C) e três intervalos de tempo (48, 72 e 96h) comumente usados na maturação in vitro (MIV) de ovócitos caninos, 2) verificar o efeito de hormônios heterólogos: hormônio folículo estimulante (FSH) 0,5µg/ml, estradiol 20µg/ml e somatotropina humana (hST) 1µg/ml; e o efeito de proteínas: 0,4 % albumina sérica bovina (BSA), 10 % de soro de vaca em estro inativado (SVE), e 10 % soro de cadela em estro inativado (SCE) na maturação nuclear de ovócitos caninos, 3) observar a influência da condição reprodutiva das doadoras de ovários (folicular, diestro, anestro, piometra, e prenhez) sobre os índices de maturação in vitro ovocitária, 4) verificar a habilidade para fecundação in vitro de ovócitos coletados de fêmeas em diferentes estágios do ciclo estral, previamente maturados in vitro e adicionalmente, examinar sua capacidade de desenvolvimento embrionário in vitro. O meio de maturação usado nos experimentos foi TCM-199 suplementado com 25 mM Hepes/l (v/v) com 10 % de soro de vaca em estro inativado (SVE), 50 µg/ml de gentamicina, 2,2 mg/ml de bicarbonato de sódio, 22 µg/ml de ácido pirúvico, 1 µg/ml de estradiol, 0,5 µg/ml de FSH e 0,03 UI/ml de hCG. O meio de maturação era modificado de acordo com a proposta experimental apresentada. Os resultados do primeiro experimento não mostraram diferença estatística no índice de meiose de ovócitos maturados à 37oC ou à 39oC em quaisquer dos intervalos testados (48, 72, 96 horas), embora a proporção de ovócitos que alcançaram metáfase II a 37oC após 72 horas da maturação in vitro, mostrasse uma tendência estatística à significância (p = 0,064), quando comparada àquela dos ovócitos maturados à 39oC. Foi concluído que temperaturas de 37oC e 39oC são similares para maturação in vitro de ovócitos de cadelas. No segundo experimento deste estudo, os índices mais elevados (p < 0,05) de retomada da meiose após 72 horas de maturação in vitro foram obtidos, quando TCM 199 era suplementado com 0,4 % de BSA. Uma influência positiva sobre a aquisição de metáfase II (MII) foi observada com a suplementação de 1µg/ml de hST no meio de maturação. Ao contrário, ovócitos maturados em TCM 199 com 10 % de soro de cadela em estro não se desenvolveram até o estádio de MII. Os resultados deste experimento mostraram que a suplementação de proteínas e de hormônios ao TCM-199 não facilitam as etapas finais da maturação in vitro de ovócitos de cadelas.No terceiro experimento, os resultados de maturação dos ovócitos não mostraram diferença estatística na progressão do material nuclear até o estádio de MII entre os ovócitos provenientes de cadelas em várias condições reprodutivas (fase folicular: 5,4 %; diestro: 4,2 %; anestro: 4,4 %; piometra: 8,1 % e prenhez: 4,7 %). A retomada da meiose mostrou índices de 24,6 % na fase folicular, 19,6 % no diestro, 16,4 % no anestro, 37,1 % na piometra e 29,2 % na prenhez. Índices positivos e mais elevados de resíduo acima do valor esperado foram observados para as condições de piometra e de prenhez nos estádios de metáfase/anáfase I (MI/AI). Nossos resultados indicam que a maturação nuclear in vitro de ovócitos caninos não é influenciada pela condição reprodutiva in vivo da fêmea no momento da coleta ovariana. No experimento de fecundação in vitro (FIV), 888 ovócitos selecionados através de sua qualidade morfológica superior foram distribuídos em 3 grupos de acordo com o estágio do ciclo estral da doadora em: a) folicular, b) anestro, c) luteal . Após período de 48 horas de maturação a 37oC em TCM 199 suplementado com 25 mM Hepes/l (v/v), com 10 % soro de vaca em estro inativado (SVE), 50 µg/ml de gentamicina, 2,2 mg/ml de bicarbonato de sódio, 22 µg/ml de ácido pirúvico, 20 µg/ml de estradiol, 0,5 µg/ml de FSH, 0,03 UI/ml hCG e 1 µg/ml de hST, os ovócitos eram fecundados in vitro (2x106 espermatozóides/ml) por um período de 24 horas. A percentagem de ovócitos nucleados desenvolvendo-se em embriões foi de 10,1 % (27/ 267). O índice de clivagem (2-8 células) após cinco dias da FIV foi similar nas fases reprodutivas (folicular, anestro, e luteal). Contudo, o índice geral de fecundação foi superior nos ovócitos oriundos de cadelas nos estágios folicular (42,4 %) e anestro do ciclo (34,3 %) comparativamente àqueles provenientes da fase luteal (18,6 %) (p < 0,001). Além disso, foi verificada influência da fase folicular sobre o desenvolvimento de pronúcleos, com os índices nesta fase (24,2 %) sendo estatisticamente diferentes daqueles observados no anestro e na fase luteal (9,6 % e 3,7 %, respectivamente) (p < 0,004). Não foi estabelecida correlação entre a proporção de espermatozóides capacitados ou com reação acrossômica e formação pronuclear e/ou percentagem de clivagem. Em resumo, conclui-se que: a) ovócitos caninos podem ser maturados in vitro de forma similar às temperaturas de 39oC e 37o. b) a adição de hormônios (FSH, estradiol, hST) e proteínas (BSA, SVE, SCE) ao meio TCM 199 não eleva os índices de maturação nuclear até o estádio de MII de ovócitos caninos maturados in vitro. c) em cães, a seleção de ovócitos com base na coleta dentro de um estágio específico do ciclo estral não deve ser usada para prever índices de meiose ou habilidade para desenvolvimento embrionário in vitro. d) ovócitos caninos maturados, fecundados e cultivados in vitro podem se desenvolver a zigotos com até 8 células.