Na 1 Nachlass Max Horkheimer, 657 - "The Philosophy of Western Society", "Bericht über die Aktivitäten des Instituts für Sozialforschung für Robert M. MacIver", "Über die Tätigkeit des Instituts für Sozialforschung", "Stipendiaten des Instituts für Sozialforschung: Forschungsberichte", "Research Projects of the International Institut of Social Research" (p. IX 56-IX 59.2)

Über das Forschungsprogramm: The Philosophy of Western Society. Teilstück des allgemeinen Forschungsprogramms, veröffentlicht unter dem Untertitel: "The Philosophy of Social Science", in: "International Institute of Social Research. A Report of Its History, Aims and Activites, 1933-1938", New York (1938?), S. 19, Typoskript mit eigenhändiger Korrektur, 2 Blatt; Bericht über die Aktivitäten des Instituts für Sozialforschung für Robert M. MacIver, 1938-39: 1. Bericht vom 7.12.1939; a) Typoskript, englisch, 9 Blatt; b) Typoskript, als Brief von Pollock an Robert M. MacIver, Typoskript 10 Blatt; c) Entwurf Typoskript, englisch, 15 Blatt; d) Entwurf Typoskript, deutsch, 17 Blatt; MacIver, Robert M.: 1 Brief mit Unterschrift an Friedrich Pollock, New York, 27.04.1938, 1 Blatt; "Some data on the Institut`s Staff and Activities", 11.03.1938, zwei Typoskripte, je 2 Blatt; Über die Tätigkeiten des Instituts für Sozialforschung. Verschiedene Berichte. 1939; Aufstellung der Forschungsgebiete verschiedener Mitarbeiter des Instituts. Ohne Datum, Typoskript, 9 Blatt; Aufstellung der Forschungsgebiete verschiedener Mitarbeiter des Institutes, aus einem Bericht. Typoskript, 7 Blatt; Bericht an den Präsidenten des Columbia University. Typoskript, 2 Blatt; "Contribution of Dr. Franz Neumann to the Round Table Discussion, Chicago, Social Science Reaserach Building" Dezember 1939; a) Typoskript mit Handschriftlichen Korrekturen, 3 Blatt; b) Typoskript, 3 Blatt; "Statment on the objectives of the International Institut of Social Research". Typoskript, 2 Blatt; Stipendiaten des Instituts für Sozialforschung: Forschungsberichte, Ende 1939; Adorno, Theodor W.: a) Typoskript, englisch, mit eigenhändigen Korrekturen, 4 Blatt; b) Typoskript, deutsch, 3 Blatt; Beck, Maximilian: "Geschichte des Begriffs der Vernunft von Platon bis Husserl (Outline)". Typoskript, englisch und deutsch, mit handschriftlichen Korrekturen, 7 Blatt; Flechtheim, Ossip K.: Typoskript mit handschriftlichen Ergänzungen, 1 Blatt; Fried, Hans Ernest: Typoskript, 1 Blatt, 16.11.1939; Grossmann, Henryk: "Capitalism in the 13th Century"; a) Typoskript, englisch, mit handschriftlichen Korrekturen, 6 Blatt; b) Typoskript, englisch, 6 Blatt; c) Typoskript, deutsch, 4 Blatt; Grossmann, Henryk: "The Classical Theory and Marxism"; a) Typoskript, englisch, mit handschriftlichen Korrekturen, 2 Blatt; b) Typoskript, deutsch, mit handschriftlichen Korrekturen, 2 Blatt; Kirchheimer, Otto: Manuskript, 1 Blatt; Lauterbach, Albert: a) Typoskript, englisch, mit handschriftlichen Korrekturen, 2 Blatt; b) Typoskript, deutsch, mit handschriftlichen Korrekturen, 1 Blatt; Marcuse, Herbert: Typoskript mit handschriftlichen Korrekturen, 2 Blatt; Neumann, Franz L.: Typoskript, 2 Blatt; Wittfogel, Karl August: Typsokript, 2 Blatt; Zilsel, Edgar: Typoskript, 4 Blatt; Research Projects of the International Institute of Social Research. nicht vor 1939; Beschreibung der Forschungsprojekte: Pollock, Friedrich: "Economic and Social Cosequences of a Prepardness Economy". Neumann, Franz L.: "The Rule of Law". Fromm, Erich: "The German Worker in the Weiman Republic". Kirchheimer,Otto: "Criminal Law and Social Structure". Marcuse, Herbert: " A Text and Source Book for the History of Philosophy". Fromm, Erich: "Character Structure of Modern Man". Neumann, Franz L.: "The Theory and Practice of European Labor Law". Wittfogel, Karl August; Wittfogel-Lang, Olga: "The Chinese Family"; Dasselbe wie in "Beschreibung der Forschungsprojekte", ausgenommen Pollock, Friedrich: "Economic and Social Cosquences of a Prepardness Economy" und Fromm, Erich: "The German Worker in the Weimar Republic", zusätzlich Kirchner, Otto; Weil, Felix: "Changes in Social Stratification, National Income, and Living Standards of Germany since 1933"; 1 Ordner, Typoskript mit eigenhändigen Korrekturen, 49 Blatt;

InGen of creative production in the health sciences: A workbook companion to innovation generation

InGen of Creative Production in the Health Sciences is a compendium of innovative thinking exercises for individuals and groups, derived from an eclectic array of practical guides for professionals in a variety of fields. Segmented into five subcategories across twenty two chapters, the effort seeks to make techniques for increasing innovative problem solving more accessible to a diverse audience of problem solvers. The chapters of Roberta Ness. Innovation Generation (2012, Oxford University Press) provide the themes for each of the chapters in the workbook. It is intended that those who read Ness. Innovation Generation will benefit from practicing the constructs of innovative thinking exemplified in each exercise.^ The methods used to gather data, in this case mostly innovative thinking exercises, included literature reviews of existing innovative thinking tools, classroom materials, and theory-driven exploration of exercises to fill in gaps in extant materials. Specifically, Google.com and Amazon.com searches were conducted using the terms “innovation,” “innovative,” “innovator,” “creative,” “novelty,” “thinking,” together with some variance of “book,” “workbook,” and “exercise.” The results were sorted thematically to show correspondence with the themes in Ness (2012) and compared to suggested best practices of 50 years of scientific research on innovative thinking. Where themes were suggested by Ness (2012) and peer-reviewed research on innovation but unavailable in published innovation thinking workbooks, new exercises were developed. The five type subcategories into which these results were organized are: individual direct, individual indirect, group direct, group indirect and probing question. It is anticipated that the five type subcategories and spectrum of themes will equip problem solvers in a variety of capacities.^

La evolución intelectual de la noción de materia en San Agustín de Hipona

El presente artículo estudia y analiza tanto el significado como la trayectoria intelectual de la noción de materia en el pensamiento de San Agustín, la cual, hallándose en un principio estrechamente unida a su interpretación del Génesis, termina por rebasar el ámbito estrictamente teológico para constituirse en una de las nociones claves para la comprensión de la metafísica agustiniana de la creación ex nihilo.

Un rasgo medieval de la tolerancia en Buenaventura : la cohibitio

En diversos pasajes de su Comentario a las Sentencias Buenaventura aborda el tema de las faltas veniales incorporando, en un marco teológico, una acepción del concepto de tolerancia heredada de los victorinos, el de ‘cohibitio’, para indicar un aspecto de la permisión que, por oposición al concepto de ‘prohibitio’, señalaría la posibilidad de tolerar una falta venial con el fin de evitar un mal mayor. Este trabajo presenta un seguimiento del concepto de cohibitio en los usos previos a Buenaventura, y señala en este último la vinculación de la tolerancia con el resto de las virtudes mediante la forma común o ‘forma directiva’: la caridad, que otorga a las virtudes un complemento en su ordenación natural al Bien como fin último. En este contexto, se muestra asimismo cómo la estructura conceptual de la teoría de las virtudes en Buenaventura sigue un esquema filosófico que encuentra su fundamentación metafísica en la unidad de los trascendentales.

Contradictio in terminis: dialéctica de la ambigüedad en la arquitectura contemporánea

The twentieth century brought a new sensibility characterized by the discredit of cartesian rationality and the weakening of universal truths, related with aesthetic values as order, proportion and harmony. In the middle of the century, theorists such as Theodor Adorno, Rudolf Arnheim and Anton Ehrenzweig warned about the transformation developed by the artistic field. Contemporary aesthetics seemed to have a new goal: to deny the idea of art as an organized, finished and coherent structure. The order had lost its privileged position. Disorder, probability, arbitrariness, accidentality, randomness, chaos, fragmentation, indeterminacy... Gradually new terms were coined by aesthetic criticism to explain what had been happening since the beginning of the century. The first essays on the matter sought to provide new interpretative models based on, among other arguments, the phenomenology of perception, the recent discoveries of quantum mechanics, the deeper layers of the psyche or the information theories. Overall, were worthy attempts to give theoretical content to a situation as obvious as devoid of founding charter. Finally, in 1962, Umberto Eco brought together all this efforts by proposing a single theoretical frame in his book Opera Aperta. According to his point of view, all of the aesthetic production of twentieth century had a characteristic in common: its capacity to express multiplicity. For this reason, he considered that the nature of contemporary art was, above all, ambiguous. The aim of this research is to clarify the consequences of the incorporation of ambiguity in architectural theoretical discourse. We should start making an accurate analysis of this concept. However, this task is quite difficult because ambiguity does not allow itself to be clearly defined. This concept has the disadvantage that its signifier is as imprecise as its signified. In addition, the negative connotations that ambiguity still has outside the aesthetic field, stigmatizes this term and makes its use problematic. Another problem of ambiguity is that the contemporary subject is able to locate it in all situations. This means that in addition to distinguish ambiguity in contemporary productions, so does in works belonging to remote ages and styles. For that reason, it could be said that everything is ambiguous. And that’s correct, because somehow ambiguity is present in any creation of the imperfect human being. However, as Eco, Arnheim and Ehrenzweig pointed out, there are two major differences between current and past contexts. One affects the subject and the other the object. First, it’s the contemporary subject, and no other, who has acquired the ability to value and assimilate ambiguity. Secondly, ambiguity was an unexpected aesthetic result in former periods, while in contemporary object it has been codified and is deliberately present. In any case, as Eco did, we consider appropriate the use of the term ambiguity to refer to the contemporary aesthetic field. Any other term with more specific meaning would only show partial and limited aspects of a situation quite complex and difficult to diagnose. Opposed to what normally might be expected, in this case ambiguity is the term that fits better due to its particular lack of specificity. In fact, this lack of specificity is what allows to assign a dynamic condition to the idea of ambiguity that in other terms would hardly be operative. Thus, instead of trying to define the idea of ambiguity, we will analyze how it has evolved and its consequences in architectural discipline. Instead of trying to define what it is, we will examine what its presence has supposed in each moment. We will deal with ambiguity as a constant presence that has always been latent in architectural production but whose nature has been modified over time. Eco, in the mid-twentieth century, discerned between classical ambiguity and contemporary ambiguity. Currently, half a century later, the challenge is to discern whether the idea of ambiguity has remained unchanged or have suffered a new transformation. What this research will demonstrate is that it’s possible to detect a new transformation that has much to do with the cultural and aesthetic context of last decades: the transition from modernism to postmodernism. This assumption leads us to establish two different levels of contemporary ambiguity: each one related to one these periods. The first level of ambiguity is widely well-known since many years. Its main characteristics are a codified multiplicity, an interpretative freedom and an active subject who gives conclusion to an object that is incomplete or indefinite. This level of ambiguity is related to the idea of indeterminacy, concept successfully introduced into contemporary aesthetic language. The second level of ambiguity has been almost unnoticed for architectural criticism, although it has been identified and studied in other theoretical disciplines. Much of the work of Fredric Jameson and François Lyotard shows reasonable evidences that the aesthetic production of postmodernism has transcended modern ambiguity to reach a new level in which, despite of the existence of multiplicity, the interpretative freedom and the active subject have been questioned, and at last denied. In this period ambiguity seems to have reached a new level in which it’s no longer possible to obtain a conclusive and complete interpretation of the object because it has became an unreadable device. The postmodern production offers a kind of inaccessible multiplicity and its nature is deeply contradictory. This hypothetical transformation of the idea of ambiguity has an outstanding analogy with that shown in the poetic analysis made by William Empson, published in 1936 in his Seven Types of Ambiguity. Empson established different levels of ambiguity and classified them according to their poetic effect. This layout had an ascendant logic towards incoherence. In seventh level, where ambiguity is higher, he located the contradiction between irreconcilable opposites. It could be said that contradiction, once it undermines the coherence of the object, was the better way that contemporary aesthetics found to confirm the Hegelian judgment, according to which art would ultimately reject its capacity to express truth. Much of the transformation of architecture throughout last century is related to the active involvement of ambiguity in its theoretical discourse. In modern architecture ambiguity is present afterwards, in its critical review made by theoreticians like Colin Rowe, Manfredo Tafuri and Bruno Zevi. The publication of several studies about Mannerism in the forties and fifties rescued certain virtues of an historical style that had been undervalued due to its deviation from Renacentist canon. Rowe, Tafuri and Zevi, among others, pointed out the similarities between Mannerism and certain qualities of modern architecture, both devoted to break previous dogmas. The recovery of Mannerism allowed joining ambiguity and modernity for first time in the same sentence. In postmodernism, on the other hand, ambiguity is present ex-professo, developing a prominent role in the theoretical discourse of this period. The distance between its analytical identification and its operational use quickly disappeared because of structuralism, an analytical methodology with the aspiration of becoming a modus operandi. Under its influence, architecture began to be identified and studied as a language. Thus, postmodern theoretical project discerned between the components of architectural language and developed them separately. Consequently, there is not only one, but three projects related to postmodern contradiction: semantic project, syntactic project and pragmatic project. Leading these projects are those prominent architects whose work manifested an especial interest in exploring and developing the potential of the use of contradiction in architecture. Thus, Robert Venturi, Peter Eisenman and Rem Koolhaas were who established the main features through which architecture developed the dialectics of ambiguity, in its last and extreme level, as a theoretical project in each component of architectural language. Robert Venturi developed a new interpretation of architecture based on its semantic component, Peter Eisenman did the same with its syntactic component, and also did Rem Koolhaas with its pragmatic component. With this approach this research aims to establish a new reflection on the architectural transformation from modernity to postmodernity. Also, it can serve to light certain aspects still unaware that have shaped the architectural heritage of past decades, consequence of a fruitful relationship between architecture and ambiguity and its provocative consummation in a contradictio in terminis. Esta investigación centra su atención fundamentalmente sobre las repercusiones de la incorporación de la ambigüedad en forma de contradicción en el discurso arquitectónico postmoderno, a través de cada uno de sus tres proyectos teóricos. Está estructurada, por tanto, en torno a un capítulo principal titulado Dialéctica de la ambigüedad como proyecto teórico postmoderno, que se desglosa en tres, de títulos: Proyecto semántico. Robert Venturi; Proyecto sintáctico. Peter Eisenman; y Proyecto pragmático. Rem Koolhaas. El capítulo central se complementa con otros dos situados al inicio. El primero, titulado Dialéctica de la ambigüedad contemporánea. Una aproximación realiza un análisis cronológico de la evolución que ha experimentado la idea de la ambigüedad en la teoría estética del siglo XX, sin entrar aún en cuestiones arquitectónicas. El segundo, titulado Dialéctica de la ambigüedad como crítica del proyecto moderno se ocupa de examinar la paulatina incorporación de la ambigüedad en la revisión crítica de la modernidad, que sería de vital importancia para posibilitar su posterior introducción operativa en la postmodernidad. Un último capítulo, situado al final del texto, propone una serie de Proyecciones que, a tenor de lo analizado en los capítulos anteriores, tratan de establecer una relectura del contexto arquitectónico actual y su evolución posible, considerando, en todo momento, que la reflexión en torno a la ambigüedad todavía hoy permite vislumbrar nuevos horizontes discursivos. Cada doble página de la Tesis sintetiza la estructura tripartita del capítulo central y, a grandes rasgos, la principal herramienta metodológica utilizada en la investigación. De este modo, la triple vertiente semántica, sintáctica y pragmática con que se ha identificado al proyecto teórico postmoderno se reproduce aquí en una distribución específica de imágenes, notas a pie de página y cuerpo principal del texto. En la columna de la izquierda están colocadas las imágenes que acompañan al texto principal. Su distribución atiende a criterios estéticos y compositivos, cualificando, en la medida de lo posible, su condición semántica. A continuación, a su derecha, están colocadas las notas a pie de página. Su disposición es en columna y cada nota está colocada a la misma altura que su correspondiente llamada en el texto principal. Su distribución reglada, su valor como notación y su posible equiparación con una estructura profunda aluden a su condición sintáctica. Finalmente, el cuerpo principal del texto ocupa por completo la mitad derecha de cada doble página. Concebido como un relato continuo, sin apenas interrupciones, su papel como responsable de satisfacer las demandas discursivas que plantea una investigación doctoral está en correspondencia con su condición pragmática.

Certificate size reduction in abstraction-carrying code

Abstraction-Carrying Code (ACC) has recently been proposed as a framework for mobile code safety in which the code supplier provides a program together with an abstraction (or abstract model of the program) whose validity entails compliance with a predefined safety policy. The abstraction plays thus the role of safety certificate and its generation is carried out automatically by a fixpoint analyzer. The advantage of providing a (fixpoint) abstraction to the code consumer is that its validity is checked in a single pass (i.e., one iteration) of an abstract interpretation-based checker. A main challenge to make ACC useful in practice is to reduce the size of certificates as much as possible while at the same time not increasing checking time. The intuitive idea is to only include in the certificate information that the checker is unable to reproduce without iterating. We introduce the notion of reduced certificate which characterizes the subset of the abstraction which a checker needs in order to validate (and re-construct) the fall certificate in a single pass. Based on this notion, we instrument a generic analysis algorithm with the necessary extensions in order to identify the information relevant to the checker. Interestingly, the fact that the reduced certificate omits (parts of) the abstraction has implications in the design of the checker. We provide the sufficient conditions which allow us to ensure that 1) if the checker succeeds in validating the certificate, then the certificate is valid for the program (correctness) and 2) the checker will succeed for any reduced certificate which is valid (completeness). Our approach has been implemented and benchmarked within the CiaoPP system. The experimental results show t h a t our proposal is able to greatly reduce the size of certificates in practice. To appear in Theory and Practice of Logic Programming (TPLP).

Lightweight compilation of (C)LP to JavaScript

We present and evaluate a compiler from Prolog (and extensions) to JavaScript which makes it possible to use (constraint) logic programming to develop the client side of web applications while being compliant with current industry standards. Targeting JavaScript makes (C)LP programs executable in virtually every modern computing device with no additional software requirements from the point of view of the user. In turn, the use of a very high-level language facilitates the development of high-quality, complex software. The compiler is a back end of the Ciao system and supports most of its features, including its module system and its rich language extension mechanism based on packages. We present an overview of the compilation process and a detailed description of the run-time system, including the support for modular compilation into separate JavaScript code. We demonstrate the maturity of the compiler by testing it with complex code such as a CLP(FD) library written in Prolog with attributed variables. Finally, we validate our proposal by measuring the performance of some LP and CLP(FD) benchmarks running on top of major JavaScript engines.

CCSD(T) Study of CD3-O-CD3 and CH3-O-CD3 Far-Infrared Spectra

From a vibrationally corrected 3D potential energy surface determined with highly correlated ab initio calculations (CCSD(T)), the lowest vibrational energies of two dimethyl-ether isotopologues, 12CH3–16O–12CD3 (DME-d3) and 12CD3–16O–12CD3 (DME-d6), are computed variationally. The levels that can be populated at very low temperatures correspond to the COC-bending and the two methyl torsional modes. Molecular symmetry groups are used for the classification of levels and torsional splittings. DME-d6 belongs to the G36 group, as the most abundant isotopologue 12CH3–16O–12CH3 (DME-h6), while DME-d3 is a G18 species. Previous assignments of experimental Raman and far-infrared spectra are discussed from an effective Hamiltonian obtained after refining the ab initio parameters. Because a good agreement between calculated and experimental transition frequencies is reached, new assignments are proposed for various combination bands corresponding to the two deuterated isotopologues and for the 020 → 030 transition of DME-d6. Vibrationally corrected potential energy barriers, structural parameters, and anharmonic spectroscopic parameters are provided. For the 3N – 9 neglected vibrational modes, harmonic and anharmonic fundamental frequencies are obtained using second-order perturbation theory by means of CCSD and MP2 force fields. Fermi resonances between the COC-bending and the torsional modes modify DME-d3 intensities and the band positions of the torsional overtones.

Jerónimo Sánchez Carranza y la Escuela Española de Esgrima

El deporte de la esgrima no siempre ha sido considerado como actualmente se conoce, ni tampoco el empleo de las armas ha sido el mismo en las diferentes épocas de la historia. Si nos centramos en la española, podemos decir que se hablaba de una forma particular de hacer esgrima, la cual era muy apreciada por el resto de los países europeos. También lo era la que se hacía en Italia. Como cualquier actividad que se desarrolla a lo largo del tiempo debe generarse desde unos comienzos. Estos comienzos siempre están en relación a alguna causa. Para centrarnos en nuestro estudio, los comienzos del manejo de la espada, de una manera lógica y razonada, se une en la persona y en la vida de Jerónimo Sánchez Carranza porque hasta que él no se decide a estudiar en profundidad la ciencia de las armas, no se ve con claridad si todo lo que se hacía con ellas era correcto o no y si todo lo que la inmensa mayoría hacía cuando tenía que utilizarlas estaba revestido de cierta coherencia y fundamento, es decir, tenía su verdad que se pudiera demostrar. Carranza estudia la esgrima que se empleaba en su época y en las anteriores y se da cuenta que tiene que dar una nueva visión de la forma de usar las armas, diferente a lo que la gran mayoría entendía hasta entonces. A Carranza se le ha considerado por muchos autores como el inventor de la esgrima española, hecho que se puede leer con bastante facilidad si se hojea algún tratado que hable de la esgrima española, sin embargo también se habla de Luis Pacheco de Narváez asignándole el mismo calificativo, aunn- ;o es posteriora Carranza. or tanto nuestro estudio se ha centrado en la vida de Jerónimo Sánchez Carranza y en ueva forma de emplear las armas por lo que hace que la tesis sea una tesis biográfica de dicho personaje, donde se ha resaltado mucho más el aspecto del manejo de las armas, de la Destreza. Partimos de las siguientes hipótesis: Carranza es el que sienta los principios técnicos dando forma y coherencia a la escuela de esgrima española gracias a sus aportaciones en los distintos aspectos metodológicos, técnicos y tácticos. La escuela de esgrima española tiene una estructura interna, responde a unas características determinadas y sirve de base a la esgrima que posteriormente se practica. Para que el estudio se pudiera llevar a cabo tuvimos que diseñar un esquema donde se pudieran recoger todos los aspectos que estuvieran relacionados con nuestro autor, de ahí surge el porqué de cada uno de los capítulos que hemos confeccionado. Dicho esquema responde a la visión actual de diferentes facetas de lo que hoy se estudia en diversas ciencias y que cuando Carranza vivía aún no se conocían. Para recoger información sobre su persona y su obra tuvimos en cuenta los distintos lugares donde se podía localizar la documentación necesaria, sobre todo Bibliotecas y Archivos, para ir confeccionando el método de trabajo que consistió en la recopilación de fuentes de todo tipo referidas al tema, pasando luego a la interpretación de las mismas. Esto nos dio una visión de conjunto que hizo que nos adentráramos en aquellos aspectos que más tarde tendríamos que analizar con mucho más detenimiento. En la tesis se puede observar dos partes bien diferenciadas que son las relacionadas; por un lado, a su vida y su tratado y, por otro, al contenido de sus teorías que son realmente las que se deben analizar necesariamente bajo unos conocimientos específicos de la actividad de la esgrima. En cuanto a su vida, se han destacado y estudiado los hechos más importantes de los que hay que resaltar, sobre todo, el que fuera considerado como el inventor de la destreza y de la manera tan particular de concebir dicho arte, diferente a lo que hasta ahora se venía haciendo y que dio paso a lo que se entendió por esgrima científica, quedando plasmada de tal manera que dio pie a la creación de una doctrina y una nueva forma de entender la esgrima la cual generó una línea de actuación que fue continuada por numerosos seguidores. Para todo ello tuvo mucho que ver el que Carranza fuera militar, la cultura y los estudios que poseía, así como la situación en la que se encontraba España además de la gente con quien se relacionaba, que por lo general, era gente culta y de clase social alta. Se ha estudiado también dentro del mismo apartado de su vida unos hechos que se le imputan y que en nuestra opinión son erróneos. Hemos considerado como más relevantes el que Carranza no fue quien riñó con Quevedo como se afirma en algunas de las obras que hemos tratado, sino que fue Pacheco quien tuvo dicha riña, ya que más bien Quevedo se mostraba partidario de las enseñanzas de Carranza, estando en contra de Pacheco. Tampoco fue quien inventó el florete como se dice en algunas ocasiones, ya que el florete aparece posteriormente como un arma de estudio de la técnica de la esgrima. Con respecto al apartado de su obra, se debe decir que tan solo escribió un único tratado que se publicó en 1582, aunque estaba acabado desde el año 1569. En el apartado de su escuela se debe destacar los fundamentos en los que basó sus postulados para que la destreza alcanzara el mismo nivel de las demás artes liberales y que lo hizo a través del estudio de la propia destreza. A lo largo del estudio que hemos realizado se puede apreciar cómo se está generando un arte que hasta ahora no había sido estudiado, viéndose los problemas que ello suponía, desde la organización de la materia a tratar, hasta cómo se debía enseñar, pasando a veces a tener que denominar conceptos de nueva aparición o renombrar y modificar antiguos que estaban anclados en puntos de partida equivocados, siendo éstos los que mayor trabajo le supuso. Diferencia bien dos aspectos básicos que debían existir en cualquier arte y más concretamente en la destreza que son: la teoría y la práctica, ambas deben estar en base a la razón ya que sería una de las formas por la que la destreza perduraría en el tiempo, junto con que esta razón estuviera apoyada en otras ciencias y con los principios de ellas. Carranza fue de la opinión de que el diestro debía conocer mediante el estudio, los elementos fundamentales con los que había que trabajar la destreza, estos elementos son el cuerpo del diestro y las armas, porque ambos van a intervenir en cualquier gesto o acción que se vaya a realizar. Del cuerpo estudió cada una de las partes que más importancia tiene cada vez que el diestro interviene y lo hace sobre todo en base a la medicina, relacionándolo con las matemáticas para poder sacar el máximo provecho, aconsejando que por el conocimiento del propio cuerpo, como el del contrario, se podrá emplear en determinadas situaciones, que si no se supiera de ello, no se sacaría el mismo resultado. De las armas lo que más resaltó fue, por un lado, que la espada debía ser el único arma que el diestro debía utilizar y, por otro, el hecho de que la espada la graduara para poder demostrar que no se hacia todo igual con las distintas partes de la misma porque no todo el arma tenía las mismas propiedades cuando se actuaba con ella. Una de las recomendaciones que dio fue que con la parte más próxima a la empuñadura se debía practicar la defensa por tener más fuerza con esta parte que con la punta y lo demostró con principios matemáticos. Se puede ver con la lectura de la tesis cómo Carranza aporta una nueva forma de trabajo en la que le da mucha importancia a la aplicación de los conocimientos, que previamente se han adquirido y para ello, es importante conocer bien los puntos fuertes y débiles del adversario. La adquisición de la práctica se debe realizar a través de la repetición para crear el hábito necesario que haga que el gesto salga fluido en cada uno de los movimientos que el diestro ejecute. Todo esto no sería posible si quien lo enseña no conoce cada uno de los elementos que intervienen en la destreza, por tanto, a la figura del maestro le da un lugar de una gran relevancia, ya que va a ser él quien tenga que guiar a los alumnos que enseñe. Lo primero que debe hacer los maestros es procurar saber lo máximo de la materia que va a enseñar, por lo que el maestro debe saber casi todo sobre la teoría y la práctica de la destreza, pero además esta teoría y práctica debe ser la correcta. Carranza persigue con su estudio, establecer los principios de la destreza, por lo menos, los más importantes, aunque fueran elementales, para que posteriormente se siguiera trabajando sobre ellos y poder conseguir que la destreza tenga cuerpo y forma de arte liberal, pudiéndose estudiar como cualquier otra, así de esta manera se haría un bien público, ya que los jóvenes se instruirían eficazmente en el uso de las armas, aunque el verdadero fin se encuentra en la conservación de la vida como manda la Fe Católica, siendo la destreza uno de los medios más eficaces para conseguirlo. Hemos dedicado un apartado de técnica y de táctica donde se refleja todo lo relacionado con las posiciones y movimientos que debe realizar el diestro para llegar a conseguir su objetivo, que es herir sin ser herido. Se han analizado las distintas tretas y el porqué de cada una desde el punto de vista del gesto y del movimiento. Si lo que se hace en destreza se relaciona con el adversario, nos adentramos en el terreno de la táctica donde se han estudiado como más importantes los conceptos del tiempo y la distancia, así como las energías que debe conservar el diestro para poder llevar a cabo un combate y del mismo salir victorioso sin llegar al agotamiento. Concluimos diciendo que de todo el estudio que se ha realizado, se ha podido comprobar que Carranza fue quien dotó a la destreza de unos principios técnicos, tácticos y metodológicos, por su forma de concebir este nuevo arte, así como que por la manera en que estableció sus teorías hizo que la destreza que se practicaba en España disfrutara de una estructura interna coherente que perduró a través de los años. SUMMARY The sport of fencing has not always been the respected sport that we know it to be today ñor has the use of weapons been the same throughout history. If we concéntrate on Spainish weapons, we can say that one particular type of sword ¡s spoken about. this sword being very respected by outher European countries, it was also the one that was respected and used in Italy. As with any activity that develops in time, it must evlove from some simple beginnings. Such basics beginnings are always in relation to a cause. To concéntrate on our study, the beginnings are, the use of the sword in a reasoned and logical manner, brought together in the life and times of Jerónimo Sánchez Carranza because until he decided to study in depth the science of weapons, we cannot see with calrity if their use was correct or not and if the vast majority , when they had to use them, used any foundation or coherence, that ¡s to say if any exactness of logical use could be demonstrated. Carranza studied the sword used in his time and those that had gone before, bearing in mind that he had a new visión of the form of use of weapons, different to what the vast majority had until then understood. Carranza has been considered by many historians as the inventor of the Spanish sword, a fact which can be seen with relative ease if one flicks through any work which deals with the Spanish sword, however, they also speak of Luis Pacheco de Narváez affording him the same title, even though he followed Carranza. In ar H our study has been centred on the life of Jerónimo Sánchez Carranza and his ne-" use of weapons. In effect this thesis is a biographical thesis of the said wherein the aspect of the use of weapons stands out more than their mastery. Given the following hypothesis: It was Carranza who evolved the first techniques giving form and coherence to the .Spanish School of Fencing, thanks to his contributions to the different aspects of method, íechnique and tactic. The Spanish School of Fencing had an ¡nternal structure anaswerable to pre-detremined characteristics and served as a base for the fencing that was to, in later days, be practised. For this study to come to a head, we had to design a plan wherein we could collate all of the aspects we could, related to our inventor. From there springs the reason for each of the chapters that we have put together. The said plan responding to the actual visión of different facets that are studied today in different sciences, that were not known in Carranza's lifetime. To collect information on his person and his works we bore in mind the different places in which we could lócate the necessary documentation, above all in libraries and archives. Developing the work-method that consisted in extracing from every source, every thing relative to the theme, re-writing later our interpretation of the same. This brought us closer and made us focus of those aspects that much later we would have to analize in greater detail. In the thesis one can observe two defferent parts that are related; on the one hand his life and works and on the other his theories, which are those that should be really analised and as such, necessarily analised within the confines of a specific knowledge of fencing. In that his life has been isolated and studied the most important facts that stand out above all, is that he was considered to be the inventor of swordmanship and the particular manner of interpreting the said art, different to its interpretaion uptil then. It gave a footing to what they understood as scientific fencing, giving shape and form to the creation of a doctrine and a new form of fencing which developed a line of action that was continued by numerious followers. For all that, much had to do with the facts that Carranza was a military man, the culture, the level of studies he had and the situation in which he found himself. What's more the people with whom he mixed were, in general, cultured and of high social standing. We have also seen in the same article on his life some dubious facts which in our opinión are erróneos. We have considered the most relevent to be that it wasnt Carranza who was in dispute with Quevedo as is stated in some of the works with which we have dealt but rather it was with Pacheco he had such disputes. What's more Quevedo demonstrated his partiality to the teachings of Carranza, going against Pacheco ñor was it him who invented The Florete, a famous Spanish sword, as was said on some ocassions, eventhough the florete appeared later as a weapon in the study of fencing technique. With respect to the article on his works, we must say that there was only one article which was published in 1582, even though it was finished in 1569. In the article on his life one must distinguish between the foundations on which he based his teachings in which swordmanship reached the same levéis as other libral art forms and what he did through the study of the self same mastery. Throughout the study which we have done, one can appreciate how he was developing an art which uptill then had not been studied, seeing for himself the problems he had fortold, from the organisation of materials at hand to how it should be taught, at times having to domínate comparative concepts again or clarify and modify ones which were anchored in erróneos points of a fencing match, feeling these to be the main forseeable jobs-at-hand. Differenciating between two basic concepts which must exist in whatever arte form and more concretly in the skill that is; the theory and practice , both being fundamental to the reason why the skill endured through time, together with this reason he was supported by other sciences and the beginnings of such. Carranza was of the opinión that the swordsman must acquired by way of study, the fundemental elements with which he had to work, these elements being the body of the swordsman and the weapons, because both were going to intervene in whatever movement or action that was going to be taken. The body studied, each of the parts having more importance each time the skill intervened and above all what it did based on medicne relating it to matemathics to exact the máximum advantage, one could employ in certain circumstances, that if they were not employed, the same advantages would not result. On weapons, what resulted best was, on the one hand, the sword should be the only weapon that the swordsman should use and on the other hand, the sword should be graded to show that one cannot do the same with the different parts of the same because not all of the weapon had the same properties when used. One of the recomendations he made was that the part nearest to the hand-guard should be used for defence because one could use more forcé with it than the point and he demonstrated this with mathematical principies. One can see on reading this thesis how Carranza brought forth a new work form, in which he put much importance on the application of experience that had previously been acquired and because of it, it was important to know well the strenghts and weaknesses of an adversery. The acquisition of technique should be realised through repetition to form the habit necessary for movement to flow freely each time the swordsman executed a movement. None of this would be possible if whoever was teaching did not know each one of the elements that intervened, affording the fencing master a great reverence, in that it was he who had to guide the students he was to teach. The first thing that the master had to do was to make sure he had the maximun knowledge over which he was going to teach, to that end, the master had to know almost everything about the theory and practice of the skill of fencing but what's more that such theory and practice had to be the correct one. Carranza persued his studies, establishing the principies of technique, at least, the most important ones even though they were elementary, so that later they could continué working on them and it could be seen that the technique had a shape and form of any other art form, allowing it to be studied like any other form, as such it had a good following, even young people could be instructed in the correct use of weapons, however the real end could be found in the conservaron of life as ordered by the Catholic Church, feeling that skill with the sword was one of the most effective methods for assuring it. We have dedicated an article to technique and tactics wherein is reflected everything related to positions and movement that the swordsman must do to achieve his objective, that is, wound without being wounded. We have analised the different tricks and the reasons from every point of view of movement and action. If what is done by technique is related with the adversery we enter in the territory of tactics wherein we have studied, most importantly, the concepts of time and distance just as, the energy the swordsman muse conserve to bring to a head a bout and arrive victorious without being exhausted. We conclude by saying that everything that has been realised by this study, has shown that it was Carranza who gave to the skill, the first basic techniques, tactics and methodology, by his conception of this new art form, just as the manner in which he established his theories, made possible the tecnhiques practiced in Spain would enjoy an intemal coherent structure, which would endure throughout the years.

Design and kinematic analysis of 3PSS-1S wrist for needle insertion guidance

In this work it is presented a complete kinematic analysis of the 3PSS-1S parallel mechanism for its implementation as a spherical wrist for a needle insertion guidance robot. The spherical 3PSS-1S mechanism is a low weight and reduced dimension parallel mechanism that allows spherical movements providing the requirements needed for the serial–parallel robotic arm for needle insertion guidance. The solution of its direct kinematic is computed with a numerical method based on the Newton–Raphson formulation and a constraint function of the mechanism. The input–output velocity equation is obtained with the use of screw theory. Three types of singular postures are identified during simulations and verified in the real prototype. The 3PSS-1S can perform pure rotations of ±45°±45°, ±40°±40°, ±60°±60° along the View the MathML sourcex, View the MathML sourcey, View the MathML sourcez axes respectively.

Infrared thermography to quantify the risk of breast cancer.

From the last decades, infrared thermography is quite often associated with things other than clinical medicine. For example, the chemical, automobile, aeronautic industries and civil engineering. However, thermography is where infrared images of the breast are analyzed by board certified thermographers and an abnormal thermogram is reported as the significant risk for the existence of breast tumor (Ng, 2009). Thermography is a painless, noninvasive, no radiation, as well as being cheaper and faster, easier access. The aim of this review was to identify the views of clinicians on the use of thermography for quantifying the risk of breast cancer. We used articles published recently in a reliable database. Thermography has been convicted over the years; it has been labeled by subjective interpretation. Most of the reviewed articles agree that mammography is currently the main examination chosen by doctors for the screening of breast cancer (Acharya et al., 2010; Kennedy et al., 2009). However, several studies have reported promising results for the technique (Wang et al., 2010). Additionally, some authors suggest that thermography is complementary to other diagnostic methods, and that the best strategy for the early detection of breast cancer would be to use them together (Kennedy et al., 2009; Hersh, 2004). The combination of thermal imaging with other tests would increase accuracy, sensitivity and specificity of the evaluation and allow a better quantification of the risk of breast cancer.