Procedures for monitoring recombinant erythropoietin and analogs in doping.

Hemoglobin concentration is one of the principal factors of aerobic power and, consequently, of performance in many types of physical activities. The use of recombinant human erythropoietin is, therefore, particularly powerful for improving the physical performances of patients, and, more generally, improving their quality of life. This article discusses procedures for monitoring recombinant erythropoietin and its analogues in doping for athletic performance.

Gene copy number polymorphisms in an arbuscular mycorrhizal fungal population.

Gene copy number polymorphism was studied in a population of the arbuscular mycorrhizal fungus Glomus intraradices by using a quantitative PCR approach on four different genomic regions. Variation in gene copy number was found for a pseudogene and for three ribosomal genes, providing conclusive evidence for a widespread occurrence of macromutational events in the population.

Planifier un sevrage aux glucocorticoïdes: stratégie diagnostique et thérapeutique [How to plan glucocorticoid withdrawal: diagnostic and therapeutic strategies]

Glucocorticoïds are widely used in medicine and associated with numerous complications. Whenever possible, dosage reduction or treatment withdrawal should be considered as soon as possible depending on the underlying disease being treated. Administration of glucocorticoids induces a physiologic negative feed-back on the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis and three clinical situations can be distinguished during treatment withdrawal: reactivation of the disease for which the glucocorticoids were prescribed, acute adrenal insufficiency and steroid withdrawal syndrome. Acute adrenal insufficiency is a feared complication but probably rare. It is usually seen during stress situations and can be observed long after steroid withdrawal. There is no good predictive marker to anticipate acute adrenal insufficiency and clinical evaluation of the patient remains a key element in its diagnosis. If adrenal insufficiency is suspected, HPA suppression can be assessed with dynamic tests. During stress situation, steroid administration is then recommended depending on the severity of the stress.

Listado de verificación de procedimientos invasivos en nefrología: catéter peritoneal, catéter venoso central temporal para hemodiálisis y biopsia renal percutánea

Sección "Buenas prácticas en gestión clínica"

Pamidronate intraveineux dans le traitement de l'ostéoporose post-ménopausique : effets de différentes modalités d'administration sur le remodelage et la densité osseuse : une étude pilote

Résumé : Introduction : l'ostéoporose est une maladie caractérisée par une masse osseuse diminuée et une structure osseuse appauvrie amenant à une fragilité osseuse augmentée et par conséquent à une augmentation du risque fracturaire. Elle est associée à une morbidité et mortalité importantes. Il existe de nombreuses substances à disposition pour son traitement. La modalité d'administration est très variable selon la substance prescrite. Les bisphosphonates, puissants antirésorbeurs osseux, sont la classe médicamenteuse de référence. Malheureusement, prescrits per os, iIs ont fréquemment des effets secondaires digestifs limitant leur usage et sont donc mieux tolérés en iv. C'est le pamidronate qui a été le premier prescrit et reste le plus utilisé. Méthode : le meilleur régime d'administration du pamidronate n'étant pas connu, nous avons testé son effet à différentes doses sur les marqueurs du remodelage osseux et la densitométrie osseuse. Trois modalités d'administration pour une dose annuelle constante (30 mg tous les 3 mois, 40 mg tous les 4 mois et 60 mg tous les 6 mois) ont été comparées chez des femmes postménopausées avec une ostéoporose. 39 patientes ont été recrutées sur 2 ans et réparties en 2 groupes appelés EFAP 1 et 2 pour Evaluation de la Fréquence d'Administration du Pamidronate selon la fréquence des contrôles de sang. Résultats : au cours des 6 premiers mois de traitement, on observe une chute rapide des télopeptides sanguins dès le premier mois qui suit l'injection de 30, 40 ou 60 mg de pamidronate avec toutefois, une inhibition de la résorption osseuse plus efficace à long terme pour les traitements fractionnés (30 et 40 mg). Des résultats similaires sont obtenus pour l'ostéocalcine. Il n'existe en revanche pas de modifications significatives des autres paramètres (calcémie, PTH, vitamine D et phosphatase alcaline) dans les 3 groupes. Ces résultats se confirment après 24 mois de traitement avec une efficacité plus marquée pour les traitements 30 et 40 mg. Sur le plan des valeurs de densitométrie osseuse, après 2 ans de traitement, les valeurs sont augmentées de façon significative sur la colonne lombaire avec les trais dosages, de façon non significatives sur le col fémoral et de façon significative pour le trochanter avec le dosage de 40 mg seulement. Conclusions : bien que cette étude démontre des gains de densité osseuse quasi identiques entre les 3 modes d'administration pour une dose annuelle cumulée de 120 mg, l'inhibition du remodelage osseux est beaucoup plus importante avec les doses de 30 ou 40 mg tous les 3 ou 4 mois qu'avec 60 mg tous les 6 mois. Ces deux modes d'administration permettent de mieux expliquer le lien entre l'effet sur les marqueurs et sur la densitométrie osseuse.

Loco-regional administration of anticancer agents : isolated lung perfusion with doxorubicin hypoxic abdominal stop-flow perfusion with gemcitabine

SUMMARY Regional drug delivery is an approach designed to improve the selectivity of anticancer chemotherapy. The advantage of regional treatments lies in increasing the drug concentration in the affected organ, while the rest of the organism is spared, thus improving efficacy and limiting treatment toxicity. The goal of this thesis was to assess the distribution throughout the body and the disposition (pharmacokinetics) of two anticancer agents, doxorubicin and gemcitabine, administered by two different regional administration modalities: isolated lung perfusion (ILP) for pulmonary metastases from soft tissue sarcomas and abdominal stop-flow hypoxic perfusion for advanced pancreatic cancers, respectively. For this purpose, two high-performance liquid chromatography methods were developed and validated. The first enabled the determination of doxorubicin in four different biological matrices: serum, reconstituted effluent, tissues with low levels of doxorubicin and tissues with high levels of doxorubicin. The second allows the analysis of gemcitabine and its principal metabolite dFdU in plasma. The administration of doxorubicin by ILP was studied in three preclinical studies (one on pigs and two on rats). It was first shown that, regardless of the administration mode, doxorubicin was not homogeneously distributed throughout the lung and that some regions remained out of reach. Secondly, it was demonstrated that doxorubicin did not adequately reach the tumours despite very high levels found in the lung. Finally, an attempt to enhance the doxorubicin tumoural uptake by pharmacologic modulation using two P-glycoprotein inhibitors, cyclosporin and valspodar, was unsuccessful. The last part of this work involves the administration of gemcitabine by abdominal stop-flow as a part of a phase I clinical trial in patients with advanced pancreatic disease or resistant malignant ascites. The study has demonstrated that the regional exposure to gemcitabine was increased while the exposure of the entire organism was similar to standard intravenous administrations. From a toxicological perspective, the procedure was rather well tolerated. However, even if no clinical response is expected from a phase I study, no hints of clinical responses were unfortunately observed. In conclusion, even if loco-regional therapies may afford the pharmacological advantage of increasing anticancer drug levels at the tumour site, further studies of these investigational treatment modalities are warranted to ascertain whether they can provide a significant improvement of the cancer therapy for patients, in terms of treatment tolerability, improved responses and survival rates. RÉSUMÉ L'administration locorégionale d'agents anticancéreux est une approche destinée à augmenter la sélectivité du traitement. L'avantage des traitements régionaux repose sur le fait que la concentration du médicament cytostatique est augmentée dans l'organe où est localisée la tumeur, alors que le reste de l'organisme est épargné, améliorant ainsi en théorie l'efficacité du traitement et en limitant sa toxicité. Le but de ce travail de thèse avait pour objectif de préciser, la pharmacocinétique au sein de l'organisme de deux agents anticancéreux, la doxorubicine et la gemcitabine, administrés par deux types de perfusions loco-régionales: la perfusion isolée du poumon (ILP) pour les métastases pulmonaires de sarcomes des tissus mous, et la perfusion hypoxique (stop-flow) abdominale pour les cancers avancés du pancréas. Dans cette optique, deux méthodes de chromatographie liquide à haute performance ont été développées et validées. La première permet le dosage de la doxorubicine dans quatre milieux biologiques: le sérum, l'effluent reconstitué, ainsi que des tissus contenant des concentrations faibles et élevées en doxorubicine. La seconde méthode permet le dosage dans le plasma de la gemcitabine et de son principal métabolite, le dFdU. L'administration de doxorubicine par ILP a été étudiée dans trois études précliniques (une chez le porc et deux chez le rat). Il a été montré, dans un premier temps, que la doxorubicine n'était pas distribuée de façon homogène au sein du poumon, quel que soit son mode d'administration. Dans un deuxième temps, il a été démontré que le médicament n'atteignait pas les tumeurs de façon adéquate, malgré des concentrations très élevées au sein du tissu pulmonaire. Finalement, une tentative d'augmenter la pénétration tumorale de la doxorubicine par une modulation pharmacologique de la P-glycoprotéine en utilisant la cyclosporine et le valspodar n'a pas abouti. La dernière partie de ce travail concernait l'administration de gemcitabine par stop-flow abdominal dans le cadre d'une étude clinique de phase I menée auprès de patients atteints de cancers avancés du pancréas ou d'ascites malignes réfractaires. Cette étude a démontré que l'exposition régionale à la gemcitabine était augmentée, alors que l'exposition de l'organisme était similaire à une administration de dose standard par voie intraveineuse. D'un point de vue toxicologique la procédure fut relativement bien tolérée. Cependant, même s'il n'est pas attendu de réponses cliniques dans une étude de phase I, aucun signe de réponse au traitement n'a pu être malheureusement observé. En conclusion, même si les thérapies loco-régionales présentent -en théorie- l'avantage pharmacologique d'augmenter les taux du médicaments anticancéreux sur le site de la tumeur, d'autres études précliniques et cliniques sont nécessaires pour démontrer que ces nouvelles modalités de traitement, de nature investigationelle à présent, apportent une réelle amélioration pour la prise en charge des patients cancéreux, en terme de tolérance au traitement et de l'augmentation des taux de réponses et de survie.

Immunomodulation nutritionnelle chez les patients atteints de mucoviscidose

SUMMARY Pulmonary Pulmonary disease is the primary cause of morbidity and mortality in cystic fibrosis patients (CF). Airways of CF patients are early colonized by various bacteriae, and an intense inflammatory response participates to airways destruction. Accumulation of neutrophils releasing proteolytic enzymes and free radicals induce progressive lung tissue destruction in CF. Among several inflammatory mediators implicated in this process, chemotactic factors such as leukotriene B4 (LTB4), product of arachidonic omega-6 polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA), plays an important role. Many anti-inflammatory therapies including corticosteroids, ibuprofen, macrolides, antioxidants and antiproteinases have been proposed in CF over the last 20 years. In complement to these various approaches, dietary supplementation with polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) omega-3, known to favor the synthesis of less inflammatory leukotriene B5 (LTB5), could also represent a potential. therapy. The objective of this thesis was to assess the impact of this nutritional approach on several CF neutrophil functions. In addition, we have also examined the influence of this approach on various clinical parameters, to assess the feasibility of future studies specifically oriented towards clinical effects. To that endeavour, a high performance liquid chromatography method has been developed and validated, allowing the simultaneous determination of LTB4 and LTB5 produced by stimulated human polymorphonuclear leukocytes. This method was applied for the analysis of samples collected from CF patients taking part to a double-blind, randomized, crossover placebo-controlled clinical trial aiming at evaluating in these patients the immunomodulatary effect of a liquid supplementation enriched in omega-3 PUFA in CF. This study has shown that omega-3 PUFA are incorporated in CF neutrophil membranes and results into a modulation of leucotrienes B production, as testified by a three fold decrease in LTB4/LTB5 ratio after omega-3 PUFA supplementation. However, no clinical improvement was observed upon omega-3 supplementation, very reproducible results observed allow to be optimistic for a future larger trial focused on clinical outcomes. In conclusion, even if the results show that omega-3 PUFA are absorbed by CF patients and that the subsequent decrease in LTB4/LTB5 ratio suggests that in such conditions, neutrophils may produce less pro-inflammatory mediators, the clinical relevance of those observations remains to be demonstrated. Future multicentric studies focusing on clinical endpoints are still warranted to determine the importance of omega-3 PUFA in CF therapeutics. RÉSUMÉ Les patients atteints de mucoviscidose (patients CF) souffrent d'infections pulmonaires récurrentes. Celles-ci provoquent un afflux permanent de neutrophiles dans le poumon, neutrophiles qui libèrent des enzymes protéolytiques et des radicaux libres responsables à long terme de la destruction du tissu pulmonaire et, finalement, de l'insuffisance respiratoire, première cause de morbidité et de mortalité chez ces patients. La réponse inflammatoire ainsi induite peut être réduite par divers traitements anti-inflammatoires, tels que corticoïdes, anti-inflammatoires non stéroïdiens ou azithromycine. L'apport oral en acides gras polyinsaturés (AGPI) oméga-3 pourrait être une autre approche thérapeutique intéressante. Ces nutriments sont décrits comme possédant des propriétés anti-inflammatoires notamment en favorisant la synthèse d'eicosanoïdes pourvus d'une activité inflammatoire moindre par rapport à ceux issus d'une autre famille d'AGPI, les oméga-6. Ce travail de thèse a pour objectif premier d'évaluer l'impact de cette approche nutritionnelle sur diverses fonctions du neutrophile chez des patients CF. Cependant un intérêt de nature prospective a également été porté à certains paramètres cliniques, afin d'évaluer la faisabilité d'une future étude axée sur des effets cliniques. Pour ce faire, une méthode de chromatographie liquide à haute performance couplée à un spectromètre de masse a été développée et validée. Cette analyse devait permettre le dosage simultané de deux eicosanoïdes, le leucotriène B4 (LTB4) issu des AGPI oméga-6 et le leucotriène B5 (LTB5) issu des AGPI oméga-3. Puis, une étude clinique, double aveugle, randomisée, croisée sans période de washout, mais contrôlée avec un placebo, a été mise au point pour évaluer l'effet immunomodulateur de ces AGPI oméga-3 donnés sous la forme d'un liquide nutritif chez des patients CF. Les résultats de cette étude ont permis de démontrer l'absorption intestinale des AGPI oméga-3 par les patients. De plus, leur administration a permis de modifier la production de teucotriène B. En effet, le ratio LTB4/LTB5 a été diminué de près de trois fois sous liquide nutritif enrichi en AGPI oméga-3. Enfin aucune différence n'a pu être notée pour les paramètres cliniques; toutefois les résultats reproductibles observés permettent d'envisager qu'une future étude multicentrique axée sur des effets cliniques est faisable. En conclusion, la modification de la composition en AGPI membranaires du neutrophile observée durant cette étude laisse penser que ces nutriments sont absorbés par les patients CF. La modulation de la production en LTBs qui en découle permet d'envisager un potentiel effet anti-inflammatoire. Toutefois, la relevance clinique de ces observations restent à être démontrée. A l'heure actuelle, une étude multicentrique, focalisée sur des paramètres cliniques, est nécessaire avant de pouvoir se prononcer sur l'utilisation des AGPI oméga-3 chez les patients CF.

Official Positions for FRAX(®) clinical regarding glucocorticoids: the impact of the use of glucocorticoids on the estimate by FRAX(®) of the 10 year risk of fracture from Joint Official Positions Development Conference of the International Society for Clinical Densitometry and International Osteoporosis Foundation on FRAX(®).

Given the significant impact the use of glucocorticoids can have on fracture risk independent of bone density, their use has been incorporated as one of the clinical risk factors for calculating the 10-year fracture risk in the World Health Organization's Fracture Risk Assessment Tool (FRAX(®)). Like the other clinical risk factors, the use of glucocorticoids is included as a dichotomous variable with use of steroids defined as past or present exposure of 3 months or more of use of a daily dose of 5 mg or more of prednisolone or equivalent. The purpose of this report is to give clinicians guidance on adjustments which should be made to the 10-year risk based on the dose, duration of use and mode of delivery of glucocorticoids preparations. A subcommittee of the International Society for Clinical Densitometry and International Osteoporosis Foundation joint Position Development Conference presented its findings to an expert panel and the following recommendations were selected. 1) There is a dose relationship between glucocorticoid use of greater than 3 months and fracture risk. The average dose exposure captured within FRAX(®) is likely to be a prednisone dose of 2.5-7.5 mg/day or its equivalent. Fracture probability is under-estimated when prednisone dose is greater than 7.5 mg/day and is over-estimated when the prednisone dose is less than 2.5 mg/day. 2) Frequent intermittent use of higher doses of glucocorticoids increases fracture risk. Because of the variability in dose and dosing schedule, quantification of this risk is not possible. 3) High dose inhaled glucocorticoids may be a risk factor for fracture. FRAX(®) may underestimate fracture probability in users of high dose inhaled glucocorticoids. 4) Appropriate glucocorticoid replacement in individuals with adrenal insufficiency has not been found to increase fracture risk. In such patients, use of glucocorticoids should not be included in FRAX(®) calculations.

Functional heterogeneity of memory CD4 T cell responses in different conditions of antigen exposure and persistence.

Memory CD4 T cell responses are functionally and phenotypically heterogeneous. In the present study, memory CD4 T cell responses were analyzed in different models of Ag-specific immune responses differing on Ag exposure and/or persistence. Ag-specific CD4 T cell responses for tetanus toxoid, HSV, EBV, CMV, and HIV-1 were compared. Three distinct patterns of T cell response were observed. A dominant single IL-2 CD4 T cell response was associated with the model in which the Ag can be cleared. Polyfunctional (single IL-2 plus IL-2/IFN-gamma plus single IFN-gamma) CD4 T cell responses were associated with Ag persistence and low Ag levels. A dominant single IFN-gamma CD4 T cell response was associated with the model of Ag persistence and high Ag levels. The results obtained supported the hypothesis that the different patterns observed were substantially influenced by different conditions of Ag exposure and persistence.

Second non-breast primary cancer following adjuvant therapy for early breast cancer: a report from the International Breast Cancer Study Group.

The incidence of second non-breast primary cancer following adjuvant treatment was evaluated using data from patients enrolled from 1978 to 1999 in four International Breast Cancer Study Group (IBCSG) trials. The occurrence of these tumours as sites of the first failure was assessed separately for two treatment comparisons: toremifene versus tamoxifen for 5 years in 1035 patients in IBCSG Trials 12-93 and 14-93 with a median follow-up of 8 years and endocrine therapy (toremifene or tamoxifen) versus chemo-endocrine therapy (CMF or AC plus toremifene or tamoxifen) in 1731 patients from IBCSG Trials III, VII and 12-93, with a combined median follow-up of 14 years. No significant differences in second non-breast primary tumours were observed in either comparison. In particular, the incidences of second primary uterine tumours with toremifene and tamoxifen were similar and no significant increase of secondary leukaemias was observed with chemo-endocrine therapy compared with endocrine therapy.

Identification of pharmaceutical tablets by Raman spectroscopy and chemometrics

Raman spectroscopy has become an attractive tool for the analysis of pharmaceutical solid dosage forms. In the present study it is used to ensure the identity of tablets. The two main applications of this method are release of final products in quality control and detection of counterfeits. Twenty-five product families of tablets have been included in the spectral library and a non-linear classification method, the Support Vector Machines (SVMs), has been employed. Two calibrations have been developed in cascade: the first one identifies the product family while the second one specifies the formulation. A product family comprises different formulations that have the same active pharmaceutical ingredient (API) but in a different amount. Once the tablets have been classified by the SVM model, API peaks detection and correlation are applied in order to have a specific method for the identification and allow in the future to discriminate counterfeits from genuine products. This calibration strategy enables the identification of 25 product families without error and in the absence of prior information about the sample. Raman spectroscopy coupled with chemometrics is therefore a fast and accurate tool for the identification of pharmaceutical tablets.

Neuropathie optique rétrobulbaire post-actinique [Post-actinic retrobulbar optic neuropathy]

BACKGROUND: Radiation optic neuropathy (RON) is a rare, unpredictable, late complication of radiotherapy secondary to obliterative endarteritis. Tumor recurrence has to be ruled out by a clinical and neuroradiological examination. METHODS: Five patients with RON were investigated by magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) during 1992. RESULTS: Radiation-induced lesions of the intracranial visual pathways were easily visible on MRI. Without Gadolinium, a sectorial swelling was detectable, which markedly enhanced with Gadolinium. Intracranial optic nerve was affected in 5/5 cases, optic chiasm in 3/5 cases, and optic tract in 2/5 cases. CONCLUSIONS: MRI is the examination of choice when RON is suspected: it will easily delineate the extent of the lesion, and compression/infiltration by a recurrent tumor will be formally ruled out. A segmental swelling of visual pathway with marked Gadolinium enhancement on MRI is highly suggestive of radionecrosis.

Lack of thermogenic response to glucose/insulin infusion in diabetic obese subjects.

The change in energy expenditure consecutive to the infusion of glucose/insulin was examined in 17 non-obese (ten young, seven middle-aged) and 27 diabetic and non-diabetic obese subjects by employing the euglycemic insulin clamp technique in conjunction with continuous indirect calorimetry. The obese subjects were divided into four groups according to their response to a 100-g oral glucose test: group A, normal glucose tolerance; group B, impaired glucose tolerance; group C, diabetes with increased insulin response; group D, diabetes with reduced insulin response. The glucose/insulin infusion provoked an increase in energy expenditure in both young and middle-aged controls (+8.2 +/- 1.3 percent and +5.9 +/- 0.5 percent over the preinfusion baseline respectively), but a lower increase in the non-diabetic obese groups A and B (+4.0 +/- 0.7 percent and +2.0 +/- 1.0 percent over the preinfusion baseline respectively, P less than 0.05 and P less than 0.01 vs young controls). However, in the diabetic obese groups C and D, energy expenditure failed to increase in response to the glucose/insulin infusion (mean change: +0.1 +/- 1.0 percent and -2.0 +/- 1.9 percent (P less than 0.01, vs middle-aged) over the preinfusion baseline respectively). When the glucose-induced thermogenesis (GIT) was related to the glucose uptake--taking into account the hepatic glucose production--the GIT was found to be similarly reduced in the diabetics groups (C and D). The net change in the rate of energy expenditure was found to be significantly correlated with the rate of glucose uptake (r = +0.647, n = 44, P less than 0.001) when all the individuals were pooled. In conclusion, this study shows that the low glucose-induced thermogenesis in obese diabetics during glucose insulin infusion is mainly related to a reduced rate of glucose uptake; in addition, inhibition of gluconeogenesis by the glucose/insulin infusion may also contribute to decrease the thermogenic response.

Parenteral is more efficient than mucosal immunization to induce regression of human papillomavirus-associated genital tumors.

Cervical cancer is a public health concern as it represents the second cause of cancer death in women worldwide. High-risk human papillomaviruses (HPV) are the etiologic agents, and HPV E6 and/or E7 oncogene-specific therapeutic vaccines are under development to treat HPV-related lesions in women. Whether the use of mucosal routes of immunization may be preferable for inducing cell-mediated immune responses able to eradicate genital tumors is still debated because of the uniqueness of the female genital mucosa (GM) and the limited experimentation. Here, we compared the protective activity resulting from immunization of mice via intranasal (i.n.), intravaginal (IVAG) or subcutaneous (s.c.) routes with an adjuvanted HPV type 16 E7 polypeptide vaccine. Our data show that s.c. and i.n. immunizations elicited similar frequencies and avidity of TetE71CD81 and E7-specific Interferon-gamma-secreting cells in the GM, whereas slightly lower immune responses were induced by IVAG immunization. In a novel orthotopic murine model, both s.c. and i.n. immunizations allowed for complete long-term protection against genital E7-expressing tumor challenge. However, only s.c. immunization induced complete regression of already established genital tumors. This suggests that the higher E7-specific systemic response observed after s.c. immunization may contribute to the regression of growing genital tumors, whereas local immune responses may be sufficient to impede genital challenges. Thus, our data show that for an efficiently adjuvanted protein-based vaccine, parenteral vaccination route is superior to mucosal vaccination route for inducing regression of established genital tumors in a murine model of HPV-associated genital cancer.

Population pharmacokinetic study of gentamicin in a large cohort of premature and term neonates.

AIM: This study aims to investigate the clinical and demographic factors influencing gentamicin pharmacokinetics in a large cohort of unselected premature and term newborns and to evaluate optimal regimens in this population. METHODS: All gentamicin concentration data, along with clinical and demographic characteristics, were retrieved from medical charts in a Neonatal Intensive Care Unit over 5 years within the frame of a routine therapeutic drug monitoring programme. Data were described using non-linear mixed-effects regression analysis ( nonmem®). RESULTS: A total of 3039 gentamicin concentrations collected in 994 preterm and 455 term newborns were included in the analysis. A two compartment model best characterized gentamicin disposition. The average parameter estimates, for a median body weight of 2170 g, were clearance (CL) 0.089 l h(-1) (CV 28%), central volume of distribution (Vc ) 0.908 l (CV 18%), intercompartmental clearance (Q) 0.157 l h(-1) and peripheral volume of distribution (Vp ) 0.560 l. Body weight, gestational age and post-natal age positively influenced CL. Dopamine co-administration had a significant negative effect on CL, whereas the influence of indomethacin and furosemide was not significant. Both body weight and gestational age significantly influenced Vc . Model-based simulations confirmed that, compared with term neonates, preterm infants need higher doses, superior to 4 mg kg(-1) , at extended intervals to achieve adequate concentrations. CONCLUSIONS: This observational study conducted in a large cohort of newborns confirms the importance of body weight and gestational age for dosage adjustment. The model will serve to set up dosing recommendations and elaborate a Bayesian tool for dosage individualization based on concentration monitoring.