A nanotecnologia aplicada à veiculação de fármacos: estudos de desenvolvimento da formulação e caracterização

O ácido azelaico é um fármaco com actividade bacteriostática para muitos microorganismos sendo por isso frequentemente aplicado no tratamento do acne. Porém, às formulações tópicas deste fármaco estão geralmente associados alguns efeitos adversos e fracas adesões à terapêutica. Assim, a nanotecnologia pode ser aqui considerada como uma estratégia inovadora para ultrapassar os obstáculos anteriores. O objectivo deste estudo centrou-se no desenvolvimento e caracterização de nanopartículas de PLGA contendo o ácido azelaico. As nanopartículas foram produzidas através do método modificado de emulsificação/difusão do solvente e posteriormente incluídas num gel de Carbopol 940. Foram caracterizados vários parâmetros da formulação tais como potencial zeta, tamanho da partícula e eficiência de encapsulação. O tamanho médio das partículas foi de 378,63 nm (com I.P. cerca de 0,09) e o potencial zeta foi de -7,82 mV. Aeficiência de encapsulação do ácido azelaico foi de 76 ± 3,81%. Consequentemente, estas nanopartículas poderão ser consideradas ferramentas úteis para a veiculação do ácido azelaico.

O uso de nanoanticorpos no design de vacinas

Por volta da década de 90, foram descobertos na família Camelidae anticorpos desprovidos de cadeias leves e em que o seu domínio variável era constituído unicamente por cadeias pesadas (VHH) e dois domínios constantes (CH2 e CH3). Estes fragmentos passaram a ser conhecidos por Nanoanticorpos, não só pelo seu pequeno tamanho e flexibilidade, mas também por se tratar de uma nova geração de anticorpos terapêuticos, os quais apresentam várias vantagens face aos anticorpos convencionais, uma vez que não são imunogénicos e têm uma alta estabilidade térmica e química, entre tantas outras características inerentes. As suas aplicações são diversas: podem ser usados como tratamento e diagnóstico médico, na veiculação de fármacos e no desenvolvimento de vacinas. Uma das tecnologias moleculares mais usadas na clonagem e expressão dos Nanoanticorpos é a tecnologia de «Phage Display» que pode ser categorizada em duas vertentes: o sistema vector de fago e o sistema vector de fagemídeo. Os vectores fágicos mais usados são os bacteriófagos filamentosos, como o M13, capazes de infetar bactérias gram negativas, como a Escherichia coli. Trata-se de uma ferramenta biotecnológica poderosa e promissora, destacando-se na área da medicina.

Nanopartículas de PCL com acetato de hidrocortisona como uma terapia dermatológica inovadora para a dermatite atópica

A dermatite atópica é uma patologia cutânea crónica que requer cuidados intensivos da pele e tratamento farmacológico; contudo, os tratamentos disponíveis necessitam urgentemente de ser melhorados, especialmente quando utilizados por períodos longos ou em grupos específicos (ex: crianças). A nanotecnologia tem contribuído com sistemas de veiculação inovadores e pode oferecer terapias efectivas e direcionadas. Os objectivos deste estudo centraram-se na preparação caracterização das nanopartículas de policaprolactona carregadas com acetato de hidrocortisona em termos das propriedades físico-químicas, eficiência de encapsulação, ensaios de libertação in vitro e ensaios de segurança dos excipientes utilizados em voluntários humanos. As nanopartículas produzidas apresentaram um tamanho médio de 258,4 24,5 nm e um índice de polidispersão de 0,084. O potencial zeta foi -4,39 0,62 mV e a eficiência de encapsulação foi 36,32 0,03 %. A libertação in vitro do fármaco foi controlada ao longo do tempo. Além disso, os testes de segurança indicaram que os excipientes foram bem tolerados. Este estudo demonstra que as nanopartículas de policaprolactona são sistemas estáveis para veiculação de acetato de hidrocortisona que poderão conduzir a uma libertação prolongada do fármaco, com resultados promissores ao nível da sua segurança quando aplicados na pele humana.

Nanotecnologia aplicada à pele

A nanotecnologia foi introduzida nas áreas farmacêutica e cosmética, com o propósito de possibilitar o desenvolvimento de sistemas de veiculação de substâncias e para a optimização das formulações já existentes. As preparações de aplicação tópica têm elevada importância nas perspectivas terapêutica e cosmética, uma vez que a pele apresenta uma área de aplicação extensa e acessível, os efeitos sistémicos das substâncias a administrar por via tópica encontram-se geralmente reduzidos, exercendo na maioria das vezes um efeito local. Mais, a esta via estão normalmente associadas menos reacções adversas. Todavia, a pele é um órgão, dotado de um efeito barreira notável, que pode comprometer a administração de moléculas farmacológica/cosmetologicamente activas no alvo. Assim, é evidente a necessidade de conhecer a constituição da pele, pois a permeabilidade cutânea de substâncias é um desafio que só pode ser conseguido através da preparação de formulações capazes de ultrapassar essa mesma barreira. O trabalho exposto aborda sucintamente a nanocosmética, pois esta tem revelado elevados impactos económico, social e científico. A inexistência de informação sobre quais os produtos actualmente comercializados, cuja produção tenha por base a nanotecnologia, suscitaram o interesse em desenvolver uma revisão sobre esses mesmos produtos, assim como esclarecer alguns aspectos relacionados com as características da pele, que justificam o investimento e estudo exaustivo deste tipo de preparações.

Why is Chitosan Mucoadhesive?

Chitosan is a biocompatible and biodegradable amino polysaccharide, which is soluble in aqueous solutions at pH < 6.5. It has been widely used for developing drug delivery systems because of its excellent mucoadhesive properties. Although many studies report on chitosan being mucoadhesive, the nature of interactions between chitosan and mucin remains poorly defined. Here, we have examined the role of primary amino groups and the role of electrostatic attraction, hydrogen bonding, and hydrophobic effects on aggregation of gastric mucin in the presence of chitosan. Reducing the number of amino groups through their half acetylation results in expansion of chitosan’s pH-solubility window up to pH 7.4 but also reduces its capacity to aggregate mucin. We demonstrated that electrostatic attraction forces between chitosan and gastric mucin can be suppressed in the presence of 0.2 mol/L sodium chloride; however, this does not prevent the aggregation of mucin particles in the presence of this biopolymer. The presence of 8 mol/L urea or 10% v/v ethanol in solutions also affects mucin aggregation in the presence of chitosan, demonstrating the role of hydrogen bonding and hydrophobic effects, respectively, in mucoadhesion.

Vesicular systems for delivering conventional small organic molecules and larger macromolecules to and through human skin

The history of using vesicular systems for drug delivery to and through skin started nearly three decades ago with a study utilizing phospholipid liposomes to improve skin deposition and reduce systemic effects of triamcinolone acetonide. Subsequently, many researchers evaluated liposomes with respect to skin delivery, with the majority of them recording localized effects and relatively few studies showing transdermal delivery effects. Shortly after this, Transfersomes were developed with claims about their ability to deliver their payload into and through the skin with efficiencies similar to subcutaneous administration. Since these vesicles are ultradeformable, they were thought to penetrate intact skin deep enough to reach the systemic circulation. Their mechanisms of action remain controversial with diverse processes being reported. Parallel to this development, other classes of vesicles were produced with ethanol being included into the vesicles to provide flexibility (as in ethosomes) and vesicles were constructed from surfactants and cholesterol (as in niosomes). Thee ultradeformable vesicles showed variable efficiency in delivering low molecular weight and macromolecular drugs. This article will critically evaluate vesicular systems for dermal and transdermal delivery of drugs considering both their efficacy and potential mechanisms of action.

Nanoshells and nanotubes from block copolymers

Recent work exploring the use of block copolymer vesicles and tubules is reviewed. The stability and toughness of block copolymer vesicles are enhanced compared to those formed by low molar mass amphiphiles. Functionality can also readily be introduced through the polymer chemistry or by incorporating additional components (for example pore-forming membrane proteins). This design flexibility leads to numerous potential applications in encapsulation, in targeted drug delivery, templating of inorganic materials and many others.

Molecular interactions between the penetration enhancer 1,8-cineole and human skin

Penetration enhancers are chemicals that temporarily and reversibly diminish the barrier function of the outermost layer of skin, the stratum corneum, to facilitate drug delivery to and through the tissue. In the current study, the complex mechanisms by which 1,8-cineole, a potent terpene penetration enhancer, disrupts the stratum corneum barrier is investigated using post-mortem skin samples. In order to validate the use of excised tissue for these and related studies, a fibre optical probe coupled to an FT-Raman spectrometer compared spectroscopic information for human skin recorded from in vivo and in vitro sampling arrangements. Spectra from full-thickness (epidermis and dermis) post-mortem skin samples presented to the spectrometer with minimal sample preparation (cold acetone rinse) were compared with the in vivo system (the forearms of human volunteers). No significant differences in the Raman spectra between the in vivo and in vitro samples were observed, endorsing the use of post-mortem or surgical samples for this investigational work. Treating post-mortem samples with the penetration enhancer revealed some unexpected findings: while evidence for enhancer-induced disruption of the barrier lipid packing in the stratum corneum was detected in some samples, spectra from other samples revealed an increase in lipid order on treatment with the permeation promoter. These findings are consistent with phase-separation of the enhancer within the barrier lipid domains as opposed to homogeneous disruption of the lipid lamellae. Copyright (C) 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

New prodrugs derived from 6-aminodopamine and 4-aminophenol as candidates for melanocyte-directed enzyme prodrug therapy (MDEPT)

Two novel tyrosinase mediated drug delivery pathways have been investigated for the selective delivery of cytotoxic units to melanocytes from urea and thiourea prodrugs. The synthesis of these prodrugs is reported, as well as oximetry data that illustrate that the targets are substrates for tyrosinase. The stability of each of the prodrugs in (i) phosphate buffer and (ii) bovine serum is discussed, and the urea prodrugs are identified as lead candidates for further studies. Finally, HPLC studies and preliminary cytotoxicity studies in a melanotic and an amelanotic cell line, that illustrate the feasibility of the approach, are presented.

Advances in mucoadhesion and mucoadhesive polymers

Mucoadhesion is the ability of materials to adhere to mucosal membranes in the human body and provide a temporary retention. This property has been widely used to develop polymeric dosage forms for buccal, oral, nasal, ocular and vaginal drug delivery. Excellent mucoadhesive properties are typical for hydrophilic polymers possessing charged groups and/or non-ionic functional groups capable of forming hydrogen bonds with mucosal surfaces. This feature article considers recent advances in the study of mucoadhesion and mucoadhesive polymers. It provides an overview on the structure of mucosal membranes, properties of mucus gels and the nature of mucoadhesion. It describes the most common methods to evaluate mucoadhesive properties of various dosage forms and discusses the main classes of mucoadhesives.

Thiolated mucoadhesive and PEGylated nonmucoadhesive organosilica nanoparticles from 3-Mercaptopropyltrimethoxysilane

A novel approach has been developed to synthesize thiolated sub-100 nm organosilica nanoparticles from 3-mercaptopropyltrimethoxysilane (MPTS) through its self-condensation in dimethylsulfoxide in contact with atmospheric oxygen. The formation of MPTS nanoparticles proceeds through the condensation of methoxysilane groups and simultaneous disulfide bridging caused by partial oxidation of thiol groups. These nanoparticles showed excellent colloidal stability in dilute aqueous dispersions but underwent further self-assembly into chains and necklaces at higher concentrations. They exhibited very good ability to adhere to ocular mucosal surfaces, which can find applications in drug delivery. The thiolated nanoparticles could also be easily modified through PEGylation resulting in a loss of their mucoadhesive properties.

Biomimetic soft matter

Biomaterials are often soft materials. There is now growing interest in designing, synthesizing and characterising soft materials that mimic the properties of biological materials such as tissue, proteins, DNA or cells. Research on biomimetic soft matter is therefore a developing theme with important emerging applications in biomedicine including tissue engineering, diagnostics, gene therapy, drug delivery and many others. There are also important basic science questions concerning the use of concepts from colloid and polymer science to understand the self-assembly of biomimetic soft materials. This issue of Soft Matter presents a selection of extremely topical articles on a diversity of biomimetic soft matter systems. I thank the contributors for this quite remarkable collection of papers, which report many fascinating discoveries and insights.

Optimizing layer-by-layer deposition of interpolymer complexes on solid substrates using Biacore

The layer-by-layer deposition of polymers onto surfaces allows the fabrication of multilayered materials for a wide range of applications, from drug delivery to biosensors. This work describes the analysis of complex formation between poly(acrylic acid) and methylcellulose in aqueous solutions using Biacore, a surface plasmon resonance analytical technique, traditionally used to examine biological interactions. This technique characterized the layer-by-layer deposition of these polymers on the surface of a Biacore sensor chip. The results were subsequently used to optimize the experimental conditions for sequential layer deposition on glass slides. The role of the solution pH and poly(acrylic acid) molecular weight on the formation of interpolymer multilayered coatings was researched, and showed that the optimal deposition of the polymer complexes was achieved at pHs ≤2.5 with a poly(acrylic acid) molecular weight of 450 kDa.

Biocompatible, biomimetic ampholyte materials

New ampholyte biomaterial compounds containing ampholyte moieties are synthesized and integrated into polymeric assemblies to provide hydrophilic polymers exhibiting improved biocompatibility, haemocompatibility, hydrophilicity non-thrombogenicity, anti-bacterial ability, and mechanical strength, as well as suitability as a drug delivery platform.

On the role of specific interactions in the diffusion of nanoparticles in aqueous polymer solutions

Understanding nanoparticle diffusion within non-Newtonian biological and synthetic fluids is essential in designing novel formulations (e.g., nanomedicines for drug delivery, shampoos, lotions, coatings, paints, etc.), but is presently poorly defined. This study reports the diffusion of thiolated and PEGylated silica nanoparticles, characterized by small-angle neutron scattering, in solutions of various water-soluble polymers such as poly(acrylic acid) (PAA), poly(Nvinylpyrrolidone) (PVP), poly(ethylene oxide) (PEO), and hydroxyethylcellulose (HEC) probed using NanoSight nanoparticle tracking analysis. Results show that the diffusivity of nanoparticles is affected by their dimensions, medium viscosity, and, in particular, the specific interactions between nanoparticles and the macromolecules in solution; strong attractive interactions such as hydrogen bonding hamper diffusion. The water-soluble polymers retarded the diffusion of thiolated particles in the order PEO > PVP > PAA > HEC whereas for PEGylated silica particles retardation followed the order PAA > PVP = HEC > PEO. In the absence of specific interactions with the medium, PEGylated nanoparticles exhibit enhanced mobility compared to their thiolated counterparts despite some increase in their dimensions.